Digital maps can be directly perceived by a person when visualizing electronic maps (on video screens) and computer maps (on a solid basis), and can be used as a source of information in machine calculations without visualization in the form of an image.

Digital maps serve as the basis for the production of conventional paper and computer maps on a solid substrate.

Creation

Digital maps are created in the following ways or a combination of them (in fact, methods for collecting spatial information):

Digitization (digitization) of traditional analogue cartographic products (for example, paper maps);

photogrammetric processing of remote sensing data;

Field survey (for example, geodetic tacheometric survey or survey using global satellite positioning systems instruments);

· cameral processing of data from field surveys and other methods.

Storage and transmission methods

Since the models describing space (digital maps) are very non-trivial (unlike, for example, raster images), specialized databases (DB, see spatial database) are often used for their storage, rather than single files of a given format.

To exchange digital cards between different information systems, special exchange formats are used. These can be either popular formats of some software (software) manufacturers (for example, DXF, MIF, SHP, etc.), which have become a de facto standard, or international standards (for example, such a standard of the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) like GML).

Cartography

Cartography (from the Greek χάρτης - papyrus paper, and γράφειν - to draw) is the science of researching, modeling and displaying the spatial arrangement, combination and interconnection of objects, natural phenomena and society. In a broader interpretation, cartography includes technology and production activities.

The objects of cartography are the Earth, celestial bodies, the starry sky and the Universe. The most popular fruits of cartography are figurative-sign models of space in the form of: flat maps, relief and volumetric maps, globes. They can be presented on solid, flat or voluminous materials (paper, plastic) or as an image on a video monitor.

Sections of cartography

Mathematical cartography

Mathematical cartography is the study of ways to display the surface of the Earth on a plane. Since the surface of the Earth (approximately spherical, which is often described by the concept of an earth spheroid) has a certain curvature that is not equal to infinity, it cannot be displayed on a plane with the preservation of all spatial relationships simultaneously: angles between directions, distances and areas. You can save only some of these ratios. An important concept in mathematical cartography is cartographic projection, a function that specifies the transformation of the spheroid coordinates of a point (that is, coordinates on the earth's spheroid, expressed in angular measure) into flat rectangular coordinates in one or another cartographic projection (in other words, into a map sheet that can be spread out in front of you on the surface of the table). Another significant branch of mathematical cartography is cartometry, which allows using map data to measure distances, angles and areas on the real surface of the Earth.

Drawing up and designing maps

Drawing up and designing maps is a field of cartography, a field of technical design that studies the most adequate ways of displaying cartographic information. This area of ​​cartography is closely interconnected with the psychology of perception, semiotics and similar humanitarian aspects.

Since the maps display information related to a wide variety of sciences, there are also such sections of cartography as historical cartography, geological cartography, economic cartography, soil cartography, and others. These sections relate to cartography only as a method; in terms of content, they relate to the corresponding sciences.

Digital cartography

Digital (computer) cartography is not so much an independent section of cartography as its tool, due to the current level of technology development. For example, without canceling the methods of recalculating coordinates when displaying the Earth's surface on a plane (it is studied in such a fundamental section as mathematical cartography), digital cartography has changed the ways of visualizing cartographic works (it is studied in the section "Compilation and design of maps").

So, if earlier the author's original map was drawn in ink, today it is drawn on the computer monitor screen. To do this, use Automated Cartographic Systems (ACS), created on the basis of a special class of software (SW). For example, GeoMedia, Intergraph MGE, ESRI ArcGIS, EasyTrace, Panorama, Mapinfo, etc.

At the same time, ACS and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) should not be confused, since their tasks are different. However, in practice, the same set of software is an integrated package used to build both ACN and GIS (bright examples are ArcGIS, GeoMedia and MGE).

Creation of electronic maps (contours) of fields.

For the effective management of an agricultural enterprise, it will not be superfluous to know exactly what acreage you have. It is not uncommon for managers and agronomists of farms to only approximately know the size of their fields, which negatively affects the accuracy of calculating the necessary fertilizers and calculating the yield. Using a GPS receiver, a field computer and special software (software), you can get electronic maps (contours) of fields with centimeter accuracy!

Resource-saving technologies, including precision agriculture, involve working with electronic field maps. This is the geoinformation base on the basis of which almost all agrotechnical operations in precision farming are carried out. For example, one of the most complex agrotechnical operations of precision farming - differentiated application of mineral fertilizers is based on maps of the distribution of nutrients (N, P, K, Humus, ph) across the field. For this, an agrochemical survey of farmland is also carried out.

But even if electronic field maps are not used for the further application of precision farming technologies, the benefits of creating such maps are obvious. Knowing the exact areas of your fields and the distances between them, you can more efficiently and rationally:

1. Calculate the amount of necessary fertilizers and agrochemicals, as well as seed material

2. Take into account the resulting yield

3. Calculate the planned consumption of fuel and lubricants

4. Keep annual records of sown areas with high accuracy for each crop

5. Keep a history of fields (crop rotations)

6. If necessary, prepare visual reports of high accuracy (map printing)

The creation of field contours is carried out using a GPS receiver, a field computer and software combined into a single software and hardware complex. In the "polygon" mode, it is necessary to go around or bypass the field along its border and save the resulting contour. When saving, you can specify the name of the field and other necessary attributes and notes. After saving the contour, we will know the exact area of ​​the field.

The software also allows you to apply other geoinformation information: lines and points. Lines can be operated when marking working areas in the fields. For example, if you already have electronic maps of your fields for the past year and you only need to fix the placement of crops in the fields this year, then there is no need to re-outline the fields. It is only necessary to draw demarcation lines between crops, and then only if two or more crops are cultivated on the same field.
Points are used to map field features such as pillars, large rocks, and so on.

All received geoinformation from the software and hardware complex must be transferred to a stationary computer for further analysis and use in calculations and in making management decisions. Geoinformation software (GIS) must also be installed on a stationary computer, which will allow you to work correctly with the information received in the fields. For these purposes, we recommend using the MapInfo © program.

In principle, you can use any GIS system that works with the .SHP (Shape) format. Almost all GIS systems can work correctly with this format. However, MapInfo © is, in our opinion, the best choice for accounting for acreage and field history. in mapinfo. You can create thematic maps, superimpose the contours of your fields on satellite and aerial photographs, as well as on digitized topographic maps. Also in MapInfo there is a handy tool for measuring distances (for example, to measure the distance from the garage to the field).

8.1. The essence and objectives of the course "Digital Cartography"

The course "Digital Cartography" is an integral part of cartography. He studies and develops the theory and methods for creating digital and electronic maps, as well as the automation of cartographic work.

Cartography has now moved to a new qualitative level. In connection with the development of computerization, many processes for creating maps have completely changed. New methods, technologies and directions of mapping have appeared. It is possible to single out various areas that cartography is engaged in today: digital mapping, three-dimensional modeling, computer publishing systems, etc. In this regard, new cartographic works have appeared: digital, (electronic and virtual) maps, animations, three-dimensional cartographic models, digital models terrain. In addition to creating computer maps, the task is to form and maintain databases of digital cartographic information.

Digital cards are inseparable from traditional cards. The theoretical foundations of cartography, accumulated over the centuries, have remained the same, only the technical means of creating maps have changed. The use of computer technology has led to significant changes in the technology of creating cartographic works. The technology for performing graphic work has been greatly simplified: labor-intensive drawing, engraving and other manual work has disappeared. As a result, all traditional drawing materials and accessories fell into disuse. A cartographer who knows the software can quickly and efficiently perform complex cartographic work. There are also many opportunities to perform design work at a very high level: the design of thematic maps, covers of atlases, title pages, etc.

With the introduction of computer technology, the processes of compiling and preparing maps for publication were combined. There is no need to make a high-quality manual copy of the original (publishing original). A design original made on a computer makes it very easy to edit and correct proofreading notes without compromising its quality.

The advantages of computer technology are not only the ideal quality of graphic works, but also high accuracy, a significant increase in labor productivity, and an increase in the printing quality of cartographic products.

8.2. Definitions of digital and electronic cartographic works

The first work on the creation of digital maps was started in our country in the late 70s. At present, digital maps and plans are mainly created from traditional original maps and plans, drafting originals, circulation prints and other cartographic materials.

Digital maps are digital models of objects presented as numerically encoded plan coordinates x and y and an applicate z .

Digital maps are logical and mathematical descriptions (representations) of mapped objects and relations between them (relationships of terrain objects in the form of their combinations, intersections, neighborhoods, height differences in relief, orientation to the cardinal points, etc.) formed in the coordinates accepted for conventional maps , projections, systems of conventional signs, taking into account the rules of generalization and requirements for accuracy. Like ordinary maps, they differ in scale, subject matter, spatial coverage, etc.

The main purpose of digital maps is to serve as the basis for the formation of databases and automatic compilation, analysis, and transformation of maps.

In terms of content, projection, coordinate system and heights, accuracy and layout, digital maps and plans must fully meet the requirements for traditional maps and plans. On all digital maps, topological relationships between objects must be observed. There are several definitions of digital and electronic maps in the literature. Some of them are shown in this topic.

A digital map is a representation of map objects in a form that allows a computer to store, manipulate, and display the value of their attributes.

A digital map is a database or file that becomes a map when a GIS creates a hard copy or an image on the screen (W. Huxhold).

Electronic cards- these are digital maps visualized in a computer environment using software and hardware, in accepted projections, systems of conventional signs, subject to the established accuracy and design rules.

Electronic atlases- computer analogues of conventional atlases.

Capital atlases are created by traditional methods for a very long time, tens of years. Therefore, very often, even in the process of creation, their content becomes outdated. Electronic atlases can significantly reduce the time of their production. Maintaining electronic maps and atlases up to date, updating them is currently being done very quickly and efficiently.

There are several types of electronic atlases:

Atlases for visual viewing only ("flipping") - viewer atlases.

Interactive atlases, in which you can change the design, image methods and classification of mapped phenomena, get paper copies of maps.

Analytical atlases(GIS-atlases), which allow you to combine and compare maps, conduct their quantitative analysis and evaluation, and overlay maps on top of each other.

In many countries, including Russia, National Atlases have been created and are being created. The National Atlas of Russia is an official state publication created on behalf of the Government of the Russian Federation. The National Atlas of Russia provides a comprehensive picture of nature, population, economy, ecology, history and culture of the country (Fig. 8.1). The Atlas consists of four volumes: volume 1 - "General characteristics of the territory"; volume 2 - “Nature. Ecology"; volume 3 - “Population. Economy"; volume 4 - “History. Culture.

Rice. 8.1. National Atlas of Russia

The Atlas is issued in printed and electronic forms (the first three volumes, the electronic version of the fourth volume will be released in 2010).

Cartographic Animations- dynamic sequences of electronic maps that convey on the computer screen the dynamics and movement of depicted objects and phenomena in time and space (for example, the movement of precipitation,

movement of vehicles, etc.).

We often have to observe animations in everyday life, for example, television weather forecast maps, on which the movements of fronts, areas of high and low pressure, and precipitation are clearly visible.

To create animations, various sources are used: remote sensing data, economic and statistical data, data from direct field observations (for example, various descriptions, geological profiles, observations of weather stations, census materials, etc.). Dynamic (moving) images of cartographic objects can be different:

− moving the entire map on the screen and individual elements of the content on the map;

− changing the appearance of conventional signs (size, color, shape, brightness, internal structure). For example, settlements can be shown as pulsating punches, etc.;

− cartoon sequences frame maps or 3D images. This way it is possible to show the dynamics of glacier melting, the dynamics of the development of erosion processes;

− panning, rotation of computer images;

− scaling the image, using the effect of "influx" or removing the object;

− creating the effect of movement over the map (flying around, detour of the territory).

Animations can be flat and three-dimensional, stereoscopic and, in addition, can be combined with a photo image.

Three-dimensional animations combined with a photographic image are called virtual

maps (creates the illusion of a real area).

Technologies for creating virtual images can be different. As a rule, first a digital model is created based on a topographic map, aerial or satellite image, then a three-dimensional image of the area is created. It is painted in the colors of the hypsometric scale and then used as a real model.

8.3. The concept of geographic information systems (GIS)

The first geographic information systems were created in Canada, the USA and Sweden to study natural resources. The first GIS appeared in the early 60s. In Canada. The main goal of the Canadian GIS was the task of analyzing the land inventory data of Canada. In our country, such studies began twenty years later. Currently, in many countries there are various geographic information systems that solve a variety of tasks in various industries: in the economy, politics, ecology, cadastre, science, etc.

In the domestic scientific literature, there are dozens of definitions of GIS.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) – hardware and software com-

complexes providing collection, processing, display and distribution of space

vein-coordinated data (A.M. Berlyant). One of the functions of GIS is the creation and use of computer (electronic) maps, atlases and other cartographic products.

Geographic information system is an information system designed to collect, store, process, display and distribute data, as well as receive

based on them new information and knowledge about spatially coordinated objects and phenomena.

The essence of any GIS is that it is used to collect, analyze, organize, store various information, create a database. The most convenient form of presenting information to users is cartographic images, in addition, information can also be presented in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, texts.

A distinctive feature of GIS is that all information in them is presented in the form of electronic maps that contain information about objects, as well as spatial reference of objects and phenomena. Electronic maps differ from paper maps in that each conventional sign (object) depicted on an electronic map corresponds to the information entered in the database. This allows you to analyze them in relation to other objects. By pointing the mouse cursor, for example, at any region, you can get all the information entered into the database about it (Fig. 8.2).

Rice. 8.2. Getting information about an object from the database

In addition, geographic information systems work with cartographic projections, which allows for projection transformations of digital and electronic maps.

Rice. 8.3. Selecting a Map Projection in GIS MapInfo Professional

At present, specialized land geoinformation systems, cadastral, ecological and many other GIS have been created.

On the example of the administrative map of the Tomsk region, let's consider the possibilities of GIS. We have a database that contains information about the size of the area of ​​the districts of the Tomsk region and the number of inhabitants in each district (Fig. 8.4). Based on these data, we can obtain information about the population density of the Tomsk region, in addition, the program builds a population density map (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.4. Creation of a thematic map based on the data entered in the database

Rice. 8.5. Population density map of the Tomsk region, built in automatic mode

Thus, the distinctive features of GIS are:

− geographic (spatial) data referencing;

− storage, manipulation and management of information in the database;

− opportunities to work with projections of geographic information;

− obtaining new information based on existing data;

− reflection of spatio-temporal relations between objects;

− the ability to quickly update databases;

− digital terrain modeling;

− visualization and data output.

8.3.1. GIS subsystems

GIS consists of a number of blocks, the most important of which are input, processing block

and information output (Fig. 8.6).

Rice. 8.6. GIS structure

Information input block includes the collection of data (texts, maps, photographs, etc.) and devices for converting information into digital form and entering it into computer memory or into a database. Previously, special digitizer devices were widely used for this purpose - devices with a manual bypass of objects and automatic registration of their coordinates. Currently, they have been completely replaced by automatic devices - scanners. The scanned image is digitized using special software. All characteristics of digitized objects, including statistical data, are entered from the computer keyboard. All digital information enters the database.

A database is a collection of information organized in such a way that it can be stored on a computer.

Formation of databases, access and work with them provides database management system (DBMS), which allows you to quickly find the required information and carry out its further processing.

Sets of databases and means of managing them form databanks.

Information processing unit includes the use of various software that allows you to bind a raster image to a specific coordinate system, select the desired projection, perform automatic generalization of content elements, convert a raster image into a vector image, select image methods, build thematic and topographic maps, combine them with each other, as well as to design cartographic works.

Information output block- includes devices that allow you to display mapping results, as well as texts, tables, graphs, diagrams, three-dimensional images, etc. These are screens (displays), printing devices (printers), plotters, etc.

GIS for production purposes also includes a subsystem for issuing maps, which allows you to make printing forms and print the circulation of maps.

8.3.2. Organization of data in GIS

The data used in GIS can be very different: the results of geodetic and astronomical observations, data from field observations (geological profiles, soil sections, census materials, etc.), various maps, images, statistical data, etc.

Data in GIS have a layered organization, i.e., information about objects of the same thematic content is stored in one layer (hydrography, relief, roads, etc.).

Thus, a GIS map consists of a set of information layers (Fig. 8.7). Each layer contains different types of information: areas, points, lines, texts, and together they make up a map.

The distribution of objects by layers allows you to quickly edit objects, work with queries, and make various changes. Layers on the map can be managed: swapped, turn off visibility, block, freeze, delete, etc.

When designing a digital map, the layers must be arranged in a certain sequence, so when creating a new layer, it is placed in a certain place. The layers of background elements must be placed below the layers of stroke elements so that they do not cover the image. The sequence of layer placement conveys the correctness of the overlay of dashed and background elements of the map.

The number of layers for each map can be different and depends on the purpose of the map and the tasks that will be solved on this map. A very important task is the correct composition of layers and the distribution of objects by layers. It should be remembered that a large number of layers can make it difficult to work with the map.

You can count from one thousand nine hundred and fifty-seven. This year, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) produced the first digital elevation and terrain model of the map, which was later used to design highways. This indicates that since the middle of the twentieth century in cartography, new technological mapping and mapping processes and methods have begun to develop, which have been improved to this day. The main areas and trends of improvement in them can be identified:

• technological (electronic) methods of creating maps;
• digital ways of organizing banks and databases;
• geoinformation mapping technologies;
• formation of maps in computer networks;
• development of virtual mapping.

For a more efficient application of scientific and technological processes of development of cartography, the fastest delivery of the products created by it to the end user is required. Then they will be promptly used by consumers to solve their specific tasks. In modern realities, all scientific and production branches, including digital cartography, are guided by the satisfaction of such requests and needs of society. Thus, with the help of digital technologies, cartography is transformed from cognitive and simple means of orientation into mathematical tools and methods of design, organization, management and planning. It is already obvious that technological progress has influenced the ways in which maps are used, of which we highlight the following:

• communication methods;
• spatial information;
• system decision making.

The essence of digital cartography

Digital cartography can be represented in three or even four substantive forms:

• section of cartographic science;
• manufacturing industry;
• new technology.
• visualization tool for images of cartographic products.

First of all, as a branch of cartographic science, digital cartography is engaged in the study and display of the spatial location of various objects of society, all kinds of natural phenomena, their digital modeling and relationships.

With the application and use of automated manufacturing processes, new computer technologies and a diverse visual range of images, digital cartography is especially popular with both consumers and professionals. The production of cartographic products, as an industrial production, is a multifunctional technological process using modern technologies and in demand as an electronic product.

It is worth remembering how maps were previously built. Entire full-time cartographic groups and thematic parties were created, in the services of which there was a production need. All received shooting information was recorded with ink on tracing paper or a denser basis. Great labor intensity, significant time costs and scrupulousness in the entire mapping process made the process slow. Now all this is being replaced by computer technology, with the possibility of faster and more accurate execution of projects, convenience in updating and editing maps.

Benefits of Digital Mapping

Comparing all the previous and present possibilities of various mapping methods, including the economic component of market efficiency, the following advantages of digital cartography can be distinguished:

• transmission of accurate information about the object, which practically excludes the possibility of errors due to the use of computer automation in calculations;
• speed of processing and obtaining the final result with higher labor productivity;
• a more economical way to create maps with less labor;
• the possibility and convenience of both editing and periodic updating of maps on the same mathematical and geodetic basis.

It should also be noted that digital cartography is increasingly occupying a place in the global information flow, penetrating into various areas of interesting modern life on the planet and gaining significant segments of users of its products, thereby creating an increased demand. This situation occurs as it develops:

• new (computer) technologies for cartographic and geoinformation systems;
• new (space) methods of geodetic spatial positioning and determination of the location of all objects;
• improvement of map making, increasing the accuracy and speed of mastering new demanded cartographic products.

Types of digital mapping production

Digital cartographic production, in order to obtain certain results in its modern form, is engaged in the following production processes:

• development of digital standard maps and other cartographic materials necessary for this in the form of information arrays of the entire set of objects;
• creation of thematic maps using existing digital mathematical and cartographic bases;
• maintenance of digital databases of various information, including state borders;
• digital mapping based on satellite and aerial photographs;
• digital application of the construction of topographic maps.

Digital Cartography Manufacturing Processes

Digital cartography is a complex technological product that represents cartographic production, consisting of the following production processes:

• editorial preparatory period for compiling a digital map;
• input control of raw materials;
• classification of objects of prepared documentation;
• object encodings;
• descriptions of digital map objects;
• map editing;
• quality control;
• updates;
• conversion to exchange format;
• conversion to a given format;
• digitization of map materials;
• map vectorization;
• automation of cartographic generalization;
• summary of digital maps;
• card summary control;
• transfer to the Fund of topographic maps.

8.1. The essence and objectives of the course "Digital Cartography"

The course "Digital Cartography" is an integral part of cartography. He studies and develops
develops the theory and methods of creating digital and electronic maps, as well as automation of maps
tographic works.

Cartography has now moved to a new qualitative level. Due
with the development of computerization, many processes for creating maps have completely changed. sing
new methods, technologies and directions of mapping were developed. Can be singled out
personal areas that cartography is engaged in today: digital cartography
modeling, 3D modeling, computer publishing systems, etc. In this regard,
new cartographic works appeared: digital, (electronic and virtual)
maps, animations, 3D cartographic models, digital terrain models. Cro
In addition to creating computer maps, the task is to form and maintain databases of digital cartography.
physical information.

Digital cards are inseparable from traditional cards. Theoretical foundations of the cartographer
fii, accumulated over the centuries, remained the same, only the technical means have changed
creating maps. The use of computers has led to significant changes
technologies for creating cartographic works. Much simplified technology
completion of graphic works: labor-intensive drawing, engraving and other manual
nye works. As a result, all traditional drawing materials fell into disuse.
and accessories. A cartographer who knows the software can quickly and accurately
perform complex cartographic work. There are also many opportunities
perform design work at a very high level: the design of thematic maps,
covers of atlases, title pages, etc.

With the introduction of computer technology, the processes of compiling and preparing
making cards for publication. Eliminate the need for high-quality manual copying
compiler's original (publisher's original). Design original, executed
stored on a computer, makes it very easy to edit and correct proofreading
markings without compromising its quality.

The advantages of computer technology are not only perfect quality
graphics work, but also high precision, a significant increase in performance
labor, improving the printing quality of cartographic products.

8.2. Definitions of digital and electronic
cartographic works

The first work on the creation of digital maps was started in our country at the end
70s At present, digital maps and plans are mainly created according to the traditional
original maps and plans, drafting originals, production prints and other
cartographic materials.

Digital maps - digital models of objects presented as encoded
numeric plan coordinates x and y and applicate I.

Digital maps are logical and mathematical descriptions (representations)
mapped objects and relations between them (relationships of terrain objects in vi
de their combinations, intersections, neighborhoods, different heights in relief, orientation along the sides
us light, etc.), formed in the coordinates accepted for ordinary maps, projections,
systems of conventional signs, taking into account the rules of generalization and requirements for accuracy. Like
conventional maps, they differ in scale, subject matter, spatial coverage, etc.

The main purpose of digital maps is to serve as the basis for the formation of databases and
tomatic compilation, analysis, transformation of maps.

By content, projection, coordinate system and heights, accuracy and layout, digital
maps and plans must fully meet the requirements for traditional
maps and plans. On all digital maps, topological relations must be observed.
connections between objects. There are several definitions of digital in the literature.
and electronic cards. Some of them are shown in this topic.

digital map - representation of map objects in a form that allows
the pewter to store, manipulate, and display the value of their attributes.

digital map - is the database or file that becomes the map when
GIS creates a hard copy or image on the screen (V. Huxhold).

Electronic cards - these are digital maps rendered in a computer environment
de using software and hardware, in accepted projections, systems
conventional signs, subject to the established accuracy and design rules.

Electronic atlases- computer analogues of conventional atlases.

Capital atlases are created by traditional methods for a very long time, tens of years.
Therefore, very often, even in the process of creation, their content becomes outdated. Electronic atlas
sy can significantly reduce the time of their manufacture. Maintenance of electronic cards
and atlases at the modern level, their updating is currently being done very quickly
ro and quality.

There are several types of electronic atlases:

Atlases for visual viewing only ("flipping") - viewer atlases.

- Interactive atlases, in which you can change the design, ways of depicting
ing and classification of mapped phenomena, to receive paper copies of maps.

- Analytical atlases (GIS-atlases) allowing you to combine and compare
maps, conduct their quantitative analysis and evaluation, overlay maps on each
friend.

In many countries, including Russia, National Atlases have been created and are being created.
The National Atlas of Russia is the official state publication created by
on behalf of the Government of the Russian Federation. The National Atlas of Russia gives a com
plex idea of ​​nature, population, economy, ecology, history and culture
countries (Figure 8.1). The atlas consists of four volumes: volume 1 - “General characteristics of the territory
rii"; volume 2 - “Nature. Ecology"; volume 3 - “Population. Economy"; volume 4 - “History.
Culture.

Rice. 8.1. National Atlas of Russia

The Atlas is issued in printed and electronic forms (first three volumes, electronic
the throne version of the fourth volume will be released in 2010).

Cartographic Animations- dynamic sequences of electronic
cards that convey on the computer screen the dynamics and movement of the depicted
objects and phenomena in time and space (for example, the movement of precipitation,
movement of vehicles, etc.).

We often see animations in everyday life, for example,
television weather forecast maps, which clearly show the movement of fronts,
areas of high and low pressure, atmospheric precipitation.

Various sources are used to create animations: remote
sounding, economic and statistical data, data from direct natural
observations (e.g. various descriptions, geological profiles, observations of weather stations
tions, census materials, etc.). Dynamic (moving) cartographic images
sky objects can be different:

Moving the entire map on the screen and individual elements of the content on the map;

Changing the appearance of conventional signs (size, color, shape, brightness, internal
early structure). For example, settlements can be shown as pulsating
spinning punches, etc.;

Animated sequences of card-frames or three-dimensional images.
This way it is possible to show the dynamics of glacier melting, the dynamics of the development of erosion processes;

Panning, rotation of computer images;

Scaling an image, using a fade or fade effect
object;

Creating the effect of movement over the map (flying around, detour of the territory).

Animations can be flat and three-dimensional, stereoscopic and, in addition,
can be combined with the photographic image.

Three-dimensional animations combined with a photo image are called virtual
maps(creates the illusion of a real area).

Technologies for creating virtual images can be different. Usually,
first, a digital model is created using a topographic map, aerial or satellite image
del, then - a three-dimensional image of the terrain. It is painted in the colors of hypsometric
scales and then used as a real model.

8.3. The concept of geographic information systems (GIS)

The first geographic information systems were created in Canada, the USA and Shv for
study of natural resources. The first GIS appeared in the early 60s. In Canada. Home
The goal of the Canadian GIS was to analyze the land inventory data of Ka
nada. In our country, such studies began twenty years later. At present
time in many countries there are various geographic information systems that
solve a variety of tasks in various industries: in economics, politics, ecology,
dastra, science, etc.

In the domestic scientific literature, there are dozens of definitions of GIS.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)- hardware and software com
complexes that provide collection, processing, display and distribution of space
vein-coordinated data (A.M. Berlyant). One of the functions of a GIS is to create and use
use of computer (electronic) maps, atlases and other cartographic pro
news.

Geographic information system- is an information system for
collecting, storing, processing, displaying and distributing data, as well as receiving
based on them new information and knowledge about spatially coordinated objects
and phenomena.

The essence of any GIS lies in the fact that it is used to collect, analyze, system
thematization, storage of various information, creation of a database. The most comfortable form
presentation of information to users - cartographic images, in addition,
information can be presented in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, texts.

A distinctive feature of GIS is that all the information in them is represented
on in the form of electronic maps that contain information about objects, as well as space
binding of objects and phenomena. Differentiate electronic cards from paper cards
the fact that each conventional sign (object) depicted on the electronic map corresponds to
there is information entered into the database. This allows them to be analyzed in
connections with other objects. By pointing the mouse cursor, for example, at any area, you can
get all the information entered about him in the database (Fig. 8.2).

Rice. 8.2. Getting information about an object from the database

In addition, geographic information systems work with map projections,
which allows you to carry out projection transformations of digital and electronic maps
(Fig. 8.3).

Rice. 8.3. Choice of cartographic projection in GIS Mar!p& Pro&88yupa1

At present, specialized land geoinformation systems have been created
topics, cadastral, environmental and many other GIS.

On the example of the administrative map of the Tomsk region, let's consider the possibilities of GIS.
We have a database that contains information about the size of the area of ​​the districts of Tom
oblast and the number of inhabitants in each district (Fig. 8.4). Based on these data, we
we can get information about the population density of the Tomsk region, in addition, about
Gram builds a population density map (Figure 8.5).

Rice. 8.4. Creation of a thematic map based on the data entered in the database

Rice. 8.5. Population density map of the Tomsk region, built in automatic mode

Thus, the distinctive features of GIS are:

Geographical (spatial) data referencing;

Storing, manipulating and managing information in a database;

Opportunities for working with projections of geographic information;

Obtaining new information based on existing data;

Reflection of spatio-temporal relationships between objects;

Ability to quickly update databases;

Digital relief modeling;

Visualization and data output.

Digital Cartography and GIS

In the last decade, cartography has been undergoing a period of profound changes and technological innovations caused by the informatization of science, industry and society as a whole. There was a need to revise and redefine many concepts of this scientific discipline. For example, back in 1987, two working groups on cartographic definitions and concepts were established within the International Cartographic Association. Moreover, one of the main questions to be studied and resolved was the question of whether it is possible to define cartography without the concept of "map" and whether GIS or its elements should be included in this definition. In 1989. The working group proposed the following definition: "Cartography is the organization and communication of geographically referenced information in graphical or digital form; it may include all stages from collection to display and use of data." The concept of "map" is not included in this definition, but it is proposed to consider it separately as a "holic (i.e., holistic, structural) display and mental abstraction of geographical reality, intended for one or more purposes and transforming the corresponding geographical data into works presented in visual, digital or tactile forms".

These definitions have sparked a lot of discussion among cartographers, and as a result, an alternative definition of cartography has emerged, in which it is considered as "the organization, display, communication and use of spatially coordinated information presented in graphic, digital and tactile forms; may include all stages from data collection prior to their use in creating maps or other spatial information documents.

According to most modern cartographers, the technological aspects of cartography are not the main ones in the era of computer science, and all definitions of cartography through technology are erroneous. Cartography remains an applied, predominantly visual discipline in which communication aspects are of great importance. The assessment of computer maps in the sense of their similarity, indistinguishability from manually created maps is also erroneous. The real value of GIS technology lies precisely in the possibility of creating works of a new type. With all this, the main task of cartography remains the knowledge of the real world, and here it is very difficult to separate the form (cartographic display) from the content (reflected reality). The progress of geoinformation technologies has only increased the range of data to be mapped, expanded the range of scientific disciplines in need of cartography. Screen (display) maps and electronic atlases, which are now becoming part of national cartographic programs in many countries, only strengthen the links between cartography and computer graphics and GIS, without changing, however, the essence of cartography.

It should be noted that digital cartography in genetic terms is not a direct continuation of traditional (paper) cartography. It has evolved in the course of the overall development of GIS software and is therefore often viewed as a minor GIS component that, unlike GIS software, does not require a large investment of effort and resources. So, an untrained user with the help of existing GIS software after a few days of training can already create a simple digital map, but even in a month he is not able to create a workable GIS software. On the other hand, as cartographers note, due to the apparent ease and simplicity, digital cartography is underestimated with all the ensuing consequences.

Digital cartography has taken on a life of its own, and its association with traditional cartography is often seen as completely redundant. As you know, the creation of a traditional paper map requires rather complex equipment, as well as a team of experienced specialists (cartographers-designers) who create and edit maps and perform routine work on processing primary material. This is a technically and technologically very complex and time-consuming process. On the other hand, to create a digital map, you only need a personal computer, external devices, software, and the original (generally paper) map. In other words, any user gets the opportunity to create digital cards in the form of finished products - digital cards for sale. As a result, a lot of non-professionals are currently engaged in digital mapping, and the separation from the theory and methodology of traditional cartography leads to a loss in the quality of the transfer of geometric and topological forms of map objects, because the ability to draw well on paper is not enough for high-quality digitization (digitization is a more complicated process, since how one has to qualitatively approximate continuous curves by line segments). At the same time, the quality of design also suffers: often printed maps "resemble a certain drawing with a set of color spots, but not a map at all."

Only recently, with the development of the GIS market, the need for high-quality digital maps has begun to increase; users began to pay attention not only to the speed of digitizing maps and their low price, but also to the quality. The number of places where specialists are trained using GIS technology is growing; Western systems are being Russified and Ukrainianized, expanding the range of potential GIS users. Thus, there is a tendency for the qualitative development of digital cartography in the wake of the overall development of GIS technology.

Let's consider some features of digital mapping technology and the main parameters of digital maps. First of all, it should be noted that due to the variety of tasks solved with the help of digital maps, it is difficult to unambiguously determine the universal criteria for their quality, so the most general criterion should be the ability to provide a solution to the problem. At the moment, the situation on the market of digital maps is such that they are mainly created for a specific project, in contrast to traditional cartography, where already existing cartographic materials are used as a base map. Therefore, most often the creation of a digital map is determined not by well-established and time-tested instructions, but by scattered and not always professionally drawn up technical specifications.

Digital map quality

The quality of a digital map consists of a number of components, but the main ones are information content, accuracy, completeness and correctness of the internal structure.

Informativeness. A map as a model of reality has epistemological properties, such as meaningful correspondence (scientifically based display of the main features of reality), abstractness (generalization, the transition from individual to collective concepts, the selection of typical characteristics of objects and the elimination of minor ones), spatio-temporal similarity (geometric similarity of sizes and shapes, temporal similarity and similarity of relationships, connections, subordination of objects), selectivity and syntheticity (separate representation of jointly manifesting phenomena and factors, as well as a single holistic image of phenomena and processes that manifest themselves separately in real conditions). These properties, of course, also affect the quality of the final product - a digital map, but mainly belong to the competence of the creators of the original cartographic work: the creators of a traditional source map are responsible for its information content, and when creating a digital map, it is important to choose the right source and correctly convey , taking into account the features of digital mapping, the information embedded in the original map.

completeness Content transfers. The value of this parameter depends mainly on the technology of creating a digital map, i.e., on how strictly the control of passes by operators of digitization objects is carried out. For control, a hard copy of a digital map printed on plastic in the scale of the original can be used. During the subsequent imposition on the source of digitization, the contents of the digital map and the source material are verified. This method can also be used to assess the quality of the transfer of object shapes, but it is unacceptable for assessing the error in the position of the contours, since the output device always gives noticeable distortion. When vectorizing a raster, combining the layers of the created digital map and the raster substrate allows you to quickly identify missed objects.

Accuracy. The concept of digital map accuracy includes such parameters as the error in the position of the contours relative to the source, the accuracy of transferring the sizes and shapes of objects during digitization, as well as the error in the position of the contours of the digital map relative to the terrain associated with the source of digital mapping (paper deformation, distortion of a raster image during scanning and etc.). In addition, the accuracy depends on the software, the hardware used and the digitization source. At the moment, two technologies for digitizing maps exist in parallel and complement each other - digitizer input and digitization by raster (scanning). Practice shows that now it is difficult to talk about the advantage of any one of them. With digitizing digitization, the main amount of work on entering digital maps is performed by the operator in manual mode, i.e., to enter an object, the operator points the cursor at each selected point and presses the button. The accuracy of input during digitizing depends to a large extent on the skill of the operator. When vectorizing raster maps, subjective factors affect less, since the raster substrate allows you to correct the input all the time, however, the transfer of the shape of objects is affected by the quality of the raster, and with jagged edges of the raster line, bends of the drawn vector line begin to appear, which are caused not by the general shape of the line, but by local violations raster.

The correctness of the internal structure.

The finished digital card must have a correct internal structure, determined by the requirements for cards of this type. For example, the core of the cartographic subsystem in a GIS that uses digital vector maps is a multilayer structure of maps (layers), on which end-to-end search operations, overlay operations with the creation of derivative digital maps and maintaining the connection of object identifiers of source and derived maps must be performed. To support these operations, the topological structure of digital maps in GIS is subject to requirements that are much more stringent than, for example, maps that are used to solve problems of automated mapping or navigation. This is due to the fact that the contours of objects from different maps (layers) must be strictly consistent, although in practice, despite the sufficiently accurate digitization of the source maps separately, this agreement is not achieved, and when digital maps are superimposed, false polygons and arcs are formed. Mismatches can be visually indistinguishable up to a certain magnification scale, which is quite acceptable for automated mapping tasks focused on creating traditional fixed-scale maps using a computer. However, this is completely unacceptable for the functioning of a GIS, when a strict mathematical apparatus is used to solve various problems of analysis. For example, a topological map must have a correct line-nodal (polygons must be assembled from arcs, arcs must be connected at nodes, etc.) and multilayer structure (corresponding boundaries from different layers coincide, the arcs of one layer are exactly adjacent to the objects of another, etc. e). Creating the correct structure of a digital map depends on the capabilities of the software and on the technology of digitization.

At present, a whole industry of digital mapping has already been formed in the world, an extensive market for digital maps and atlases has developed. The first successful commercial project here, apparently, should be considered the Digital Atlas of the World (manufactured by Delorme Mapping Systems), released in 1988. This was followed by the British Domesday Project /100/, as a result of which a digital atlas of Great Britain was created on optical disks (military topographic survey materials were used as source maps and topographic bases). Since 1992, the US Department of Defense Mapping Agency has been producing and updating the Digital Chart of the World (DCW) at a scale of 1:1,000,000. In many countries of the world, national digital atlases and general geographic maps have already been created. On Fig. 5.1 shows a black-and-white printout of one of the fragments of the digital atlas of the world.

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