Graphic adapter- a device that controls the display and provides the output of graphic images. Determines the resolution of the display (the number of dots per unit of screen area), the number of colors.

LAN adapter(network adapter, network interface card - NIC) - an adapter for connecting a computer to a local network of computers. For example, to connect a personal computer to Ethernet networks the NE-2000 adapter is used.

Azo compounds- a class of organic compounds containing one (or more) azo group -N = N-. They are dyed and many of them are used as dyes (azo dyes or azo dye). Can be used in recordable CD / DVD technologies.

Analog-to-digital converter(ADC, ADC) - a device that converts an analog signal to digital and vice versa. For example, to transfer data over a digital telephone network using a modem, an analog-to-digital adapter is placed between the modem and the digital telephone channel.

Aperture- the effective aperture of the optical system, determined by the size of lenses, mirrors or diaphragms. Angular aperture - the angle a between the extreme rays of the conical light beam entering the system. The numerical aperture is n sin α / 2, where n is the refractive index of the medium. The illumination of the image is proportional to the square of the numerical aperture.

Open architecture- architecture developed by IBM for personal computers... Main features: presence of a common information bus, to which it is possible to connect various additional devices through expansion connectors; modular construction of a computer; top-down compatibility of all new devices and software with previous versions.

Von Neumann architecture- the architecture of a computer that has one arithmetic logic unit through which the data flow passes, and one control unit through which the command flow passes.

Asynchronous data transfer- a method of transmission and a method of extracting data from a continuous stream of messages, in which the transmitting side inserts start and stop bits into each datum, indicating where the datum starts and ends.

Audio adapter(Sound Blaster, sound card) - a card that allows you to record sound, play it back and generate it by software using a microphone, headphones, speakers, built-in synthesizer and other equipment.

Basic input / output system(Basic Input / Output System - BIOS) - programs designed to perform the following functions: testing basic computer devices; recognition of the types of devices installed in the computer; calling the boot block of the operating system; service system interrupts... In most computers, the BIOS is written to read only memory by the computer manufacturer and the user has no means of changing it.

Byte- a machine word of minimum dimension, addressed in the process of data processing. The byte dimension - 8 bits - is accepted not only for representing data in most computers, but also as a standard for storing data on external media, for transmitting data through communication channels, for presenting text information.

Bit(English Binary digiT - binary unit) - a unit of measurement of the amount of information, equal to the amount of information contained in an experience that has two equally probable outcomes. It is the smallest unit of information in a digital computer and takes on the values ​​"0" or "1".

Baud(baud, bit / s, bps) - a unit of measurement of data transmission speed.

Drive speed- speed of reading / writing data in the drive. It is determined by two parameters: average access time and data transfer rate.

Processor speed- the speed of performing operations by the processor. Since the speed of execution of individual operations of the processor is different, then the speed of the entire processor is taken either to be the speed of execution of "register-register" commands, or the speed of execution of commands over floating point numbers. The latter has a special name - flops (from Flops - FLoating point Operations Per Second).

Vector graphics- a way of representing an image as a collection of graphic elements (graphic primitives - segments, arcs, etc.), described in any way, including graphic commands.

Video adapter- an electronic board that processes video data (text and graphics) and controls the display. Contains video memory, I / O registers, and a BIOS module. Sends beams brightness control and image scan signals to the display.

Video memory- additional memory to provide a high-quality image on the display. It is part of the video adapter, has a volume of up to several tens of MB. In the video memory, images of one or more screens are formed, which are then fed to the display. On some computers, video memory is allocated from RAM.

External devices(VU) - input-output and information storage devices. VUs are connected to the system using interfaces that implement certain protocols of parallel or serial exchange. VU includes - keyboard, monitor, external storage devices using floppy or hard magnetic disks, optical discs(CD-ROM), magnetic tapes and other types of information carriers, sensors and information converters (analog-to-digital or digital-to-analog), executive devices (indicators, printers, electric motors, relays and others). Since they tend to be significantly slower than others, the host must suspend the program to complete the I / O operation on the corresponding device.

Fiber optic cable- a cable that transmits data using light, which increases the speed and quality of transmission. In the simplest case, the light guide is a fiber (flexible) dielectric made on the basis of silica glass and surrounded by a cladding with a refractive index lower than that of the core.

Octal number system- positional number system with base 8. For example, 123 8 is 1 * 8 2 + 2 * 8 1 + 3 * 8 0 = 64 + 16 + 3 = 83 10

Computing network... A complex of computers, auxiliary equipment, communication channels and special software for data transfer between network elements. Depending on the tasks, type of equipment and communication lines, computer networks are divided into local, corporate, territorial and global. Networks are created for a more complete use of resources or their reallocation, for fast and automatic communication with the transfer of large amounts of data.

Clock generator- a device for generating at equal intervals of time a sequence of pulses. The time between two successive pulses is called a beat. Some processor instructions are executed in several clock cycles. The impulses, passing through all the elements of the computer, make them work in a single cycle - synchronously. The clock rate determines the speed of the computer.

Flexible magnetic disk- a disk made of flexible plastic in a protective plastic package, in which holes are cut for the entry of the magnetic I / O heads. The disc is covered with a magnetic compound. Often referred to as a floppy disk or floppy disk. Discs with a diameter of 5.25 and 3.5 inches are used.

Gigabyte(GB) is a unit of measure containing 1024 MB. As an alternative IEC proposed in 1998 GiB (Gibibyte); 1 GiB = 1024 MiB (Mibibyte).

Main (internal, random access) memory (RAM) of the computer- an ordered sequence (array) of bytes or machine words (memory cells).

Global computer network- aggregate individual computers and local area networks located in different countries, connected by different communication channels and working in different software environments... This set has agreed communication protocols.

Plotter- a device for outputting information from a computer in the form of graphs and drawings on a stationary or rotating paper on a drum (plotter).

Binary number system- positional numeral system with base 2. To write numbers, binary digits 0 and 1 are used. For example, in binary system 101101 2 = 1 * 2 5 + 0 * 2 4 + 1 * 2 3 + 1 * 2 2 + 0 * 2 1 + 1 * 2 0 = 45 10. Derivatives of the number system (powers of 2) are also known - octal and hexadecimal.

Double precision- a numeric data (fixed or floating point), located in two machine words, requires support for operations of special arithmetic.

Joystick(from the English joy stick - a cheerful stick) - a lever input device designed to control the movement of graphic objects on the display screen, widely used in computer games and simulators. It is usually performed in the form of a handle equipped with buttons, which can be tilted and rotated. These movements are converted into control electrical signals proportional to the angles of deflection of the handle from the vertical. By pressing the buttons, you can tell the running program some information or give some commands.

Digitizer(or digitizer, from the English digitizer - digitizer) - devices for entering graphic data into a computer, based on different technical principles. As a rule, when using any of them, the contour of the image is outlined with a special pen.

Dynamic RAM(Dynamic Random Access Memory - DRAM) is a type of semiconductor random access memory. Each bit (bit) is stored in a circuit consisting of a transistor and a capacitor. If the capacitor is charged, this corresponds to 1, the discharged capacitor corresponds to 0. The transistor controls the access to the capacitor.

Disk- a data carrier in the form of a round plate, on which recording is carried out in various ways. The device that writes (reads) data to / from disk / s is called a data storage device. Disks differ in the way they write / read data, the ability to replace them, and the recording density. By the way of writing / reading, disks are divided into magnetic, laser (optical), magneto-optical. Magnetic disks, in turn, are divided into floppy and hard disks. Often, “disk” refers to multiple disks that are bundled together.

Drive- a device that controls the rotation of a magnetic disk, reading and writing data on it.

Display(monitor) - a device for visual display of information (in the form of text, tables, figures, drawings, etc.) on the screen of an electron beam device.

Track- a concentric circle on the magnetic surface of the disk, where information is located. Tracks are numbered starting from 0 (the track with the largest radius).

Driver(driver) is a resident software module that controls an external device and communicates with the operating system and application programs.

Hard magnetic disk(ZhMD, HDD) - a disk for long-term data storage on computers. Unlike a floppy disk, which is removable, a magnetic hard disk is integral with a disk drive.

Memory device(Memory) - a device for recording, storing and issuing data. Distinguish between devices: long-term and operational data storage, they are also non-volatile and volatile; read-only data (read only memory - ROM, CDs) and both read and write. Depending on the physical principles of data storage, magnetic, magneto-optical, optical and semiconductor (circuit) devices are distinguished.

Star- a method of connecting computers to a network, in which one computer is allocated and called the master (master), and all the rest are directly connected to it. Data can be transferred from one peripheral computer to another only through the host computer. If the host computer fails, the entire network becomes inoperable.

Integrated circuit(IC) - the implementation of an electronic circuit that performs a certain function, in the form of a single semiconductor crystal, in which all the components necessary to perform this function are manufactured. Includes a set of transistors, diodes, capacitors, resistors and others, interconnected by microconductors. The IC is manufactured using technology that provides extremely small dimensions and high reliability. By the number of elements, ICs are conventionally divided into small (MIS) - with the number of elements in the crystal up to 102, medium (SIS) - up to 103, large (LSI) - up to 104, extra-large (VLSI) - up to 106, ultra-large (UBIS) - up to 109 and large (GBIS) - more than 109 elements in a crystal.

Cartridge(English cartrige - cartridge, cassette) - replaceable part of the device. This is usually a protective cover that stores ink ribbon for printers, toner for laser printers or duplicators, ink for inkjet printers and other things. The cartridge is completely ready for use, for this it is enough to insert it into place.

Kilobyte(KB) - a unit of measure for the amount of data or the amount of memory, equal to 10 3 = 1000 bytes. An alternative is the proposed IEC KiB unit (Kibibyte); 1 KiB = 2 10 = 1024 bytes. The discrepancy is 2.4%.

Keyboard- a device designed for manual input data into the computer. Keyboards differ in the number of keys. The standard for IBM-like computers is a keyboard with 101 keys, where the blocks are highlighted: function keys; letters, numbers and auxiliary symbols; cursor control keys; numeric keypad (duplicated for ease of entry).

Cluster(from the English cluster - group) - a unit of data storage on floppy and hard disks. The cluster contains several adjacent sectors.

Customer(client) is a software and hardware complex that provides an interface with the user (another active party) when sending and receiving requests from the server.

Client server architecture(client-server) - distributed processing of requests in the network, implemented on two interacting software and hardware complexes (client and server).

Coaxial cable(from lat.co - together and axis - axis). A cable consisting of two coaxial conductors, between which an insulator is located. Used in communication channels of computer networks. It is used to transmit signals with a carrier frequency of up to 3 * 10 10 Hz.

ASCII code(from the English American Standard Code for Information Interchange - American Standard Code for Information Interchange) - a standard for encoding Latin characters, numbers and auxiliary characters or actions in the form of a single-byte binary code (1 byte = 8 bits).

Unicode code- a standard for representing characters using 16-bit codes (2 bytes). Allows 65,536 characters. The standard should in the future replace ASCII, since it is more convenient to use the same code for different languages ​​than to change the conversion tables in the ASCII code.

Codec(from the English Codec - COmpress-DECompress - compress, restore) - hardware software package providing the work of a personal computer with video information. The codec allows you to achieve the quality of the VCR through the use of hardware and software data compression methods.

Coding(coding) - establishing a consistent (legalized) correspondence between a set of characters and signals or bit combinations representing each character for the purpose of transmitting, storing or processing data.

Amount of information- the following basic units are used for measurement: 1 kilobyte (KB, KB) = 1024 bytes = 2 10 bytes; 1 megabyte (MB, MB) = 1024 KB = 2 20 bytes and bytes; 1 year gabyte (GB, GB) = 1024 MB = 2 30 bytes ~ bytes. Recently, in connection with the increase in the amount of information being processed, such derived units as 1 terabyte (TB, TV) = 1024 GB = 2 40 bytes ~ a byte; 1 petabyte (PB, PB) = 1024 TB = 2 50 bytes ~ bytes; 1 exobyte = 10 18 bytes and so on. These are the so-called decimal units. As an alternative, IEC proposed binary units in 1998: 1 KiB (KibiByte) - 2 10 = 1024 bytes; 1 MiB (MibiByte) = 1024 KiB; 1 GiB (GibiByte) = 1024 MiB (MibiByte) and so on

Ring- a method of connecting computers to a network, when data in the network is transmitted sequentially from one station to another. As a rule, data is transmitted in one direction only, therefore, in order to transmit a message to a computer standing next to the data movement, you need to go through all computers on the network.

Command is a binary number that consists of two parts (fields) - the operation code (CPC) and the address part (ADC). The KOP operation code specifies the type of operation performed by this command, and the ADC determines the choice of operands (addressing method), over which the specified operation is performed. Depending on the type of microprocessor, the command may contain a different number of bits (bytes). For example, Pentium processor instructions are 1 to 15 bytes, and most RISC processors use a fixed 4-byte format for any instruction.

Modem command language(modem AT-command, Hayes AT command) - a command language element that controls the operation of a Hayes-compatible modem.

Commutation- 1. The process of connecting or switching computing systems, including computers. 2. Distinguish between packet switching of messages, which is understood as the combination of some data and their transmission over communication channels.

Switched communication channels... General purpose communication channels that are used by a particular network only at the time of communication. In territorial and global computer networks, as a rule, general-purpose telephone channels are used, which are connected (switched) on a call to this network. Dial-up circuits are low-speed in contrast to leased circuits.

Compact disc- a disk for permanent data storage, which is a circle made of plastic or aluminum alloy, covered with a protective transparent film. The recording is done in one spiral, very long track so tightly that up to 700 MB of data can fit on a 5-inch disc. Recording is carried out under stationary conditions on special devices, and then compact disks for reading only (CD-ROM - Compact Disk Read Only Memory) are stamped for mass consumption.

Composite video(composite video) - video signals in which signals of brightness and color are transmitted together (mixed). Home video equipment typically uses NTSC, PAL and SECAM signals. The carrier signal Y (luminance signal) and the color signal located in the color band are superimposed on each other, forming one signal.

Component video(component video) - video signals in which the luminance and chrominance signals are transmitted separately to improve the quality of image transmission. In high definition television (HDTV), this refers to images that are composed of three independent signals - Y (luminance signal) and Pb and Pr (color difference signals).

Controller(from English control - to control) - a device that connects periphery equipment or channels of communication with the central processor, freeing the processor from direct control of the operation of this equipment. The controller interprets processor commands for individual devices.

Cursor- a luminous area on the display screen indicating the position at which the next character entered from the keyboard will be displayed.

Cache memory- cache memory, access to which is much faster than to the operative memory, and in which the most frequently used parts of the latter are stored. When accessing memory, the required data is first searched for in the memory cache. If it is absent, access to the RAM is made, as a result, the total time of access to the memory is reduced.

Laptop(laptop, "knee pad") - portable computer similar in size to a portfolio. In terms of speed and memory, it roughly corresponds to desktop personal computers.

Trunk-modular structure- a common computer structure in which individual devices (modules) that make up the system exchange information on a common system bus- highways.

Magneto-optical storage- a drive for working with magneto-optical disks. The magneto-optical disc (MO-disc) is made of an aluminum alloy and is enclosed in a plastic shell. Data recording technology: a laser beam heats up a point on the disk, and an electromagnet changes the magnetic orientation of this point, depending on what needs to be recorded - "0" or "1". Reading is performed by a laser beam of lower (than when recording) power, which, reflecting from this point, changes its polarity.

Manipulator(from lat. manus - hand) - a device that allows you to control the state of the computer, including entering data using hands. The manipulators include a joystick, mouse, trackball, touchpad, pen, trackpoint, J-key.

Router - electronic device, sometimes with a program unit, which determines the optimal path (route) of a message packet in computer networks.

RAID Array(from the English. Redundant Arrays of Independent / Inexpensive Disks - an array of independent disks with redundancy) - a set of hard disk drives, structurally combined into one unit with a common controller. Typically used in servers to ensure reliability through data duplication.

Scalability- a property of a system or its individual parts, which characterizes the ability of the system to adapt to a decrease or increase in its individual parameters. For example, Windows operating systems have a scalable user interface that provides a consistent look and feel across displays of different sizes.

Matrix printer- a printer in which the printing unit is a metal plate with holes (matrix) in which pins (needles) move freely. The pins, driven by a magnet, hit the ink ribbon (like a typewriter) and a symbol is created on the paper in dots.

Machine word(MS) is an ordered set of binary bits used to store program instructions and processed data. Each bit, called a bit, is a binary number that takes on values ​​only 0 or 1. The bits in the MC are usually numbered from right to left starting at 0. The number of bits in the MC is called the dimension of the MC or its capacity. Typical MS lengths are 16 or 32 bits.

Machine language- a set of computer machine instructions, characterized by the number of addresses in the command, the purpose of the information specified in the addresses, the set of operations that the machine can perform, and more

TIR structure- the structure "metal-dielectric-semiconductor" used in the creation of electronic devices, including microprocessors, memory for computers. It is an ordered set of very thin (less than 1 micron) layers of metal and dielectric deposited on a semiconductor wafer. If oxides (aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide) are used as a dielectric, a MOS structure ("metal-oxide-semiconductor") is formed. The method of creating devices based on such structures is called MIS technology or MOS technology.

Megabyte(MB) - a unit of measurement of the amount of data or the amount of memory, equal to 10 ⁶= 1,000,000 bytes. An alternative is the proposed IEC unit MiB (Mibibyte); 1 MiB = 1024 Kibibyte. The discrepancy is more than 4.8%.

Slow communication- Connection via a modem (performance from 9600 to 28 800 bit / s).

Microteam- an elementary action that ensures the execution of a given operation, the CU of the processor generates a sequence of microinstructions in accordance with the code of the received command. Each micro-instruction is executed during one machine cycle.

Micrometer(μm) - 10 -6 m, 1000 nanometers (nm).

Microprocessor- a device that performs data processing and controls this process, made in the form of one or more large (very large) integrated circuits. Microprocessors are built into control devices and are the main part of a computer. For example, a BMW car has 54 ICs that control anti-lock brakes and airbags. The microprocessor includes: an arithmetic-logic device that performs arithmetic and logical operations; control and synchronization unit; input-output unit; registers and so on.

Microsecond(ms) - 10 -6 s, 1000 nanoseconds (ns).

Modem(modulator-demodulator, modem) - a device for converting digital information into analog and vice versa by modulating / demodulating the carrier frequency for data transmission over telephone lines. Discrete (binary) data from the computer goes to the modem, where it is encoded in the appropriate way (modulated) and transmitted to the communication line.

MOS structure("Metal-oxide-semiconductor") - the structure of the material from which transistors, capacitors and other electronic devices are made.

Multimedia- a collective concept for various computer technologies, in which several information media are used, such as graphics, text, video, photography, moving images (animation), sound effects, high-quality soundtrack.

Mouse(mouse, mice) - a manipulator that allows you to select data on the display, enter graphic data. The ball sensor makes the cursor move around the screen, and the buttons act as keys (input) and (output).

Pulse / tone dialing(dialing pulse / tone) - Dialing dialing operations performed by the modem.

Storage device- a device for writing / reading data to / from a certain medium (s). Storage devices are referred to as external storage devices. Distinguish drives on disks (MD, CD), tapes (ML), cards. A distinction is also made between drives: with removable media (in this case, the storage medium can be replaced, for example, floppy disks, magnetic tapes); with permanent media (in this case, the media is built into the drive and cannot be replaced, for example, a hard magnetic disk).

Nanometer(nm) - 1 nm = 10 -9 m = 0.001 micrometer (μm).

Nanosecond(ns) - 1 ns = 10 -9 s = 0.001 microseconds (ms).

Nanotechnology- technology of manufacturing integrated circuits, which is based on quantities corresponding to nanometers and nanoseconds. For example, the expression "130 nanometers (or 0.13 microns) technology (process)" means that the dimensions structural elements microcircuits do not exceed 130 nm.

Hum- unit of brightness (candela per square meter, cd / m 2, cd / m 2).

Notebook(notebook) - a portable computer similar in size to a large-format book. Fits in a briefcase-diplomat. Usually comes with a modem and a CD-ROM drive.

RAM(OP, the same as random access memory, RAM). Designed to store programs and data they manipulate. Physically made in the form of a number of microcircuits. Logically, the OP can be represented as a linear collection of cells, each of which has its own number, called an address (or a matrix, the intersection of rows and columns of which determines a specific bit of memory).

Open systems interaction(OSI - Open system Interconnection reference model) - a set of ISO requirements for establishing interoperability open systems in the networks.

Palmtop(palmtop, "handheld") - the smallest modern personal computer that fits in the palm of your hand. Magnetic disks in it are replaced by non-volatile electronic memory; information is exchanged with ordinary computers via communication lines.

Device ports- electronic circuits containing one or more I / O registers and allowing you to connect computer peripherals to external buses microprocessor. The serial port communicates with the processor byte-by-byte, and with external devices - byte-by-bit. The parallel port receives and sends data byte-by-byte.

Read-only storage(ROM). Serves for storing constants and standard (immutable) programs. ROM usually contains programs for initial initialization (loading) of systems, test and diagnostic programs, and other service software that does not change during the operation of systems.

Primitive(from the English primitive - primary, simple, basic) - one of the simplest elements that form vector images. Basic primitives are geometric objects such as points and lines.

a printer- a printing device, converts the encoded information coming out of the processor into a form that is easy to read on paper.

Progressive scan(progressive scanning) is an image scanning method in which the image data is scanned sequentially from top to bottom, rather than line by line, as is the case with interlaced scanning.

Translucent screen(transparent screen) - the screen used for rear projection. Translucent screens play the opposite role to reflective screens. If the purpose of the latter is to reflect the maximum amount of light, then the task of the translucent screens is to transmit all the light without delaying it. Translucent screens have a glass or acrylic base.

Communication protocol- an agreed set of specific rules for the exchange of information between different data transmission devices. Protocols available for baud rates, data formats, error control and more

CPU- the central device of a computer, designed to control the operation of a computer according to a given program. The capabilities of a computer as a universal executor for working with information are determined by the processor's command system. This instruction set is the Machine Instruction Language (MCL). A separate command defines a separate operation (action) of the computer.

Display resolution (projector)- the physical number of elements (pixels, pixel - picture element) in the columns and rows of the image. There are standard types of resolutions - VGA (640 x 480), SVGA (800 x 600), XGA (1024 x 768), SXGA (1200 x 1024), UXGA (1600 x 1200), QXGA (2048 x 1536).

Register- a memory element of the processor that performs the functions of short-term storage of numbers or instructions and performing some operations on them.

Command register- UU register for storing the command code for the period of time required for its execution.

Status register SR (State Register, called EFLAGS in Pentium microprocessors). Determines the current state of the processor during program execution. The register contains control bits that specify the processor operating mode, and feature bits (flags) that indicate the characteristics of the result of the operation performed.

Sector- each track located on the disk is divided into sectors (blocks). For MS DOS case, each sector is 512 bytes.

Server(server) - network computer, which contains the resources available to clients. Server resources can be files, printers, or server applications (such as multi-user databases).

Computer network- a set of computers connected using communication channels and switching means into a single system for messaging and user access to software, technical, information and organizational resources of the network. According to the degree of geographic distribution, networks are divided into local, city, corporate, global and other. A local area network (LAN) connects a number of computers in an area limited to one room, building or enterprise. A wide area network (WAN) connects computers that are geographically distant over large distances from each other. It differs from a local network in more extended communications (satellite, cable, etc.). The urban network serves the information needs of the big city.

Data transmission network(data transfer network) - a complex of communication facilities and control computers that provides data transfer for various applications.

Command system... Processors execute a set of instructions that implement the following main groups of operations: transfers; arithmetic; brain teaser; shift; comparison and testing; bit operations; program management; processor control.

Notation- a set of rules for naming and displaying numbers using a set of symbols called numbers. Number systems are divided into positional and non-positional. An example of a non-positional number system is Roman, k positional systems numbers include binary, decimal, octal, hexadecimal.

System bus contains several dozen (in complex systems more than 100) conductors (lines), which, in accordance with their functional purpose, are subdivided into separate buses - addresses A, data D and control C.

Scanner- a device for entering documents into a computer - texts, drawings, graphs, drawings, photographs. Creates a digitized image of a document and places it in computer memory.

Standard machine word- a machine word, the dimension of which coincides with the bit width of the processor. Most processor instructions use a standard machine word to process data.

Stack- a set of memory cells that are not available in an arbitrary order, but only in the stack ("store"): LIFO - "last in - first out", like cartridges in the clip (magazine) of a rifle (machine gun), for example, an environment for storing data for return from subroutines as well as their arguments.

Superparamagnetic effect- a state in which the magnetic domains in the magnetized material (as well as the gaps between them) are so small that their magnetic orientation can easily change under the influence of the thermal motion of molecules.

Superscalar processor structure... Provides an increase in processor performance by introducing several parallel operating devices into the processor structure, ensuring the simultaneous execution of several operations. In such processors, the parallel operation of several execution pipelines is realized, each of which receives one of the selected and decoded instructions for execution.

Command address counter(СчАК), instruction address register (PAK), program counter, Program Counter (PC), in x86 - Instruction Pointer (IP) - processor register, which is used to store the address of the next command and whose contents are automatically increased by 1 after the next command is selected ...

Terabyte(TB) is a unit of data amount equal to 1000 GB. As an alternative IEC proposed TiB (TibiByte) in 1998; 1 TiB = 1024 GiB (GibiByte).

Terminal(terminal) - a terminal device, a combination of input and output devices in a computer.

Data type- the form of data presentation, which is characterized by the way data is organized in memory; many valid values; a set of operations. In other words, a data type is a schema of a certain kind of variables, embedded in the translator. The data type integer, (int, fixed, etc.) sets the properties of an integer variable - it can only take integer values ​​in a certain range depending on the processor's capacity, for example, -32 767… +32 767. Data type REAL (double, FLOAT, etc. ) sets the properties of a floating point variable.

Topology computer network - a logical and physical way of connecting computers, cables and other components that make up a network as a whole. Topology characterizes the properties of networks, regardless of their size. This does not take into account the performance and principle of operation of these objects, their types, channel lengths, although these factors are very important in the design.

Trackball- cursor control device. A small box with a ball embedded in the top of its body. The user rotates the ball by hand and moves the cursor accordingly.

Control device(UU) - a part of the processor that performs the functions of controlling computer devices.

File(file) is a named organized set of data of a certain type and purpose, under the control of the operating system. It is a collection of information, homogeneous in its composition and purpose, stored on an information carrier and having a name.

File system(file management system) is a dynamically supported information structure on direct access devices (disks), which provides the function of managing these operating systems through the name-address link.

Fixed point(fixed) - the simplest type of numerical data, when the number is located in a computer word, and the range of values ​​depends only on the word length.

Floppy Disk(floppy disk) - removable floppy disk.

Host machine(host computer) - the main computer (in a network or autonomously) that supports information and computing resources and provides them to remote users.

Color difference signal(color differential signal) - signal transmission over three cables - Red-Bright (bright red, R-Y,), Bright (bright, Y) and Blue-Bright (bright blue, B-Y). This allows composite signals to be projected more clearly (RGB and luminance signals are transmitted over the same cable).

Cylinder- combining tracks with the same number located on different surfaces of the disk (for a floppy disk, a cylinder means two tracks).

Regeneration frequency(refresh rate). The luminous display element can maintain the same brightness and color for a very short time. Therefore, the image must be periodically refreshed, and the number of such cycles per second is called the "refresh rate" and is expressed in hertz (Hz).

Interlaced scanning(interlaced scanning) - A scanning method in which the image data is divided into horizontal lines, which are reproduced sequentially from left to right and from top to bottom of the screen. Even and odd lines are played alternately.

Floating point numbers(float) - numeric data, placed in a machine word in the form of mantissa and order, which allows you to represent a wide range of values; assumes built-in or emulated arithmetic (floating point).

Sensitive screen... Allows you to communicate with your computer by touching your finger to a specific place on the monitor screen.

Tire(bus) - a device capable of controlling at least one more device. The adapter cards are connected to the bus. From the point of view of the Plug & Play subsystem, a bus is any device that can provide resources.

THE GAME (on VM) - a game presented by the VM program that provides the user with the opportunity to actively participate in changing game situations using tips or instructions and a video image. In I., partners are a person or a group of people and a VM. These can be only those I.s that use the display screen to show situations, and the keyboard - to convey the reaction of a person. Distinguish between I.: spectacular (observation of the development of history and human intervention to organize turns in history), dynamic (hockey, billiards, etc.), guessing, puzzles and exercises, visual (development of cognitive, artistic, professional and other abilities ), positional or logical (checkers, chess, etc.), evolutionary or educational (for example, "Life") and design or design games. I. are designed to develop in a person the skills of working with VM, the ability to make decisions in various situations, for entertainment and recreation, for training in professional work.

PERFECT MODEL[ideal model ] - a mental model built using images of objects, phenomena and processes based on analogy. Them. are subdivided into symbolic and visual-figurative, network, conceptual, informational, theoretical, algorithmic and systemic.

IDENTIFIER - a single letter character or a sequence of letters, numbers, and possibly special characters, beginning with a letter, used to form object names and reserved (or standard) words in programming languages. I. is introduced in the texts of programs by an explicit or implicit description that determines the area of ​​its action, in which this I. is visible directly. I. serves as a name in a syntactically defined context. I. should be selected or assigned in accordance with the requirements of formal or natural languages, natural language significantly improves the readability of programs. In intellectual programming, I. is replaced by the term as a means of generalizing I.

USER ID- a code cipher (password) assigned to the user, with which the registered user enters the system and which is used by the system to determine the level of his rights, as well as to register the fact of access and the nature of the work performed by him or the services provided to him.

IDENTIFICATION - the process of establishing the identity, equivalence of any objects on the basis of certain characteristics; I. sign - the unambiguous assignment of a perceived sign to one specific class.

IDEOGRAM - a written sign that, unlike letters, denotes not the sound of any language, but a whole concept (mathematical sign, hieroglyph, emblem, etc.).

IDIOM - an indecomposable, indivisible and unchangeable combination of words of any language, the meaning of which does not consist of the meanings of the individual words that make it up.

HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION- a classification in which a higher-order subdivision consists of non-overlapping lower-level subdivisions (linear classification).

Hierarchy is the arrangement of parts or elements of a whole in order from highest to lowest. Systems whose elements are in the relationship "is a variety", "is a part of" and other relationships of subordination are called hierarchical systems (systems with a hierarchical structure).

EXCESSIVE INFORMATION- information that exceeds in scope or meaning complete and sufficient information and is formally superfluous in the message, without I.I. you can accurately and unambiguously establish the meaning or meaning of the message. I. and. used to ensure the reliability of data transmission.

REDUNDANCY - additional elements of any system or program that work, execute or are kept in reserve to increase the reliability of the system or program. I. is also called reservation.

EDITION - a collection of printed works intended for distribution and printed by the printing house from one set and under one name. I. are: bibliographic, library, internal, dated, additional, daily, periodic, ordered, illustrated, informational, revised, cartographic, card, mass, multidisciplinary, multivolume, scientific and technical, periodical, review, branch, official, revised, repeated, subscription, full, profile, one-time, advertising, abstract, summary, abbreviated, reference, anniversary.

EXPLANATION - the process of sequential transmission orally or in writing of any thoughts, reasoning, descriptions, stories, signs, etc.

MEASUREMENT - the process of preliminary study of objects, phenomena or processes, aimed at obtaining quantitative characteristics, data related to the scope of the study and intended to establish the relationship between a measurable quantity and a pre-selected unit of measurement, scale or standard.

IMAGE - a visual expression of the external signs of an object in another object, obtained either naturally (traces), or with the help of visual means and techniques specially (drawing, drawing, painting, photograph, etc.); I. - the image of some object, phenomenon or process. There are visible, graphic, negative, positive, hidden I. And - these are in some way (for example, on a physical medium) presented visions from nature or a dream (imaginary vision), theater or cinema scenes, a picture or drawing, graphics or drawing, geometric lines or graphs, signs or symbols, various mixtures of the above, which are a means of transferring knowledge. Any information perceived by sight or formed by the imagination, fixed in any way on a medium, is I. They are intended for orienting a person in the world around them, recognizing and understanding objects, phenomena or processes, determining the characteristics or properties of images, classifying or qualifying images, accumulating images in that or another form (for example, the creation of libraries), the formation and application of the theory of information technology, the receipt of new information or facts, the synthesis of new information technology. ...

Invention - the first stage of creating an object or process, which creatively develops ideas, techniques, methods and methods for the formation of initial data or knowledge for design, identifying a problem, task or question, forming requirements for ways to resolve them.

INVENTION - the process of creative activity, ending with the solution of a new problem or task, put forward by the needs of social production. I. is the invented object or process itself.

THE STUDY - the process of acquiring knowledge, including such forms as research, assimilation of material in the learning process, etc.

ILLUSTRATION - a visual, reproducible in print graphic image of a figure, drawing, photograph, etc., which is an addition to the text and contributes to the disclosure of its content.

Industrial Society- a society determined by the level of development of industry, its technical base.

NAME COMPARISON- connection of an element of a composite value (aggregate) with a position in the aggregate using the naming of positions (in other words, key matching).

NAME COMPONENT- a distinguished name, including a prefix and a postfix, separated by a dot, and used to denote the components of the record, discriminant, object indicated by the reference value, and task inputs of objects of the task type.

NAME TYPE - a composite type of components named by different identifiers, having, generally speaking, Various types, moreover, some or none of the components are called discriminants. An object of a named type is called a record. A record is characterized by the number of fields, the type of each field, and possible options... The values ​​of the named type are called record aggregates. The component name is composite containing the name of the field, which can be of a newly named type.

NAME - a means of designating a concept described explicitly or implicitly. I. are own, for example, constants, and improper, for example, simple names, components, segments, attributes. Some AND include a prefix and a postfix, separated by a period, and are called extended names. The subject of I. can be a thing, property, relation, phenomenon, or process. The concept indicates the meaning of I.I. is used to refer to the meaning of the concept represented by the term.

INVARIANT - an expression that remains unchanged after a certain transformation of the variables associated with this expression.

INDEX - a symbol or their combination, denoting a certain concept and used to record, for example, the results of classification. I. is a list of terms or names (see INDEX). I. are: alphabetical, alphabetic, auxiliary, decimal, catalog, basic, simple, constellation, complex, mixed, composite. I. is also a way of specifying the location of the position of a given element, especially a composite one.

INDEXING - a mechanism that provides access to an element of an array by means of a reference to an array and to one or more expressions, the values ​​of which determine the position of this element in the array. I. is also a system or set of indices adopted for indexing and corresponding to one or another selected classification.

INDEXING [ indexing] - the process of selecting or compiling one or another index and assigning it to the corresponding text, document, etc., performed on the basis of classification. I. can be: automatic, alphabetic, deep, detailed, coordinate, multidimensional, permutational, free, digital.

INDEXED COMPONENT- a name consisting of a prefix and a set of indices and designating a component of the data array. In other programming languages ​​I. to. called a variable with indices pointing to one element of the array.

INDEXED TYPE- a composite type of components of the same type (arrays). The value of I.t. called an array aggregate. The component name has one or more index values ​​of discrete types. An object of an indexed type is called an array. An array is characterized by the number of indices, the type and position of each index, the upper and lower bounds of each index, and the type of values ​​of the array components.

INDUCTIVE SYSTEM- a set of rules for constructing inferences from facts to hypothesis (general statement). The basis of I.S. constitutes the induction method.

INDUCTION - research method, which consists in the transition from knowledge of particular provisions to knowledge general provisions... In general, I. is a form of thinking in which thought is directed to any general rule, the general position inherent in all single objects.

KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING- a scientific discipline that studies the problems of constructing intelligent (in particular, expert) systems, the formation of methods and means of ensuring the design and development and maintenance of such systems, as well as the creation, maintenance, debugging and maintenance of knowledge.

ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY- a section of psychology that studies the psychological characteristics of a person's labor activity in order to create optimal working conditions, for example, on a VM.

ENGINEERING PROGRAMMING- such an application of natural and mathematical sciences, through which the potential capabilities of hardware and software become useful to humans. I. p. assumes a private, typical or general programming technology, economic and administrative organization.

INTEGRATION (in a system or systems) - restoration and (or) improvement of the qualitative level of interconnections between system elements, as well as the process of creating from several heterogeneous systems unified system, as well as the process of creating a single system from several heterogeneous systems, with the aim of eliminating (to the technically necessary minimum) functional and structural redundancy and increasing the overall efficiency of functioning.

INTERACTIVE MODE, DIALOGUE MODE- a way of interaction of a user or operator with a computer, in which there is a direct and two-way exchange of information, commands or instructions between a person and a computer.

THE INTERNET - a global computer network that unites many regional, departmental, private, etc. information networks communication channels and uniform rules for all its participants for organizing the use and reception / transmission of data determined by the TCP / IP protocol.

USER INTERFACE, USER INTERFACE- 1. A set of software tools that ensure the interaction of users with the system; - 2. Means of communication between the system and users.

INTRANET - a distributed departmental computer network (including firms, corporations, organizations, enterprises, etc.) designed to provide telecommuting for its employees to corporate information resources and using software products and Internet technologies.

INFORMATIZATION - organizational socio-economic and scientific and technical the process of creating optimal conditions for meeting information needs and realizing the rights of citizens, state authorities, local governments, organizations, public associations based on the formation and use of information resources.

INFORMATION SECURITY- the state of protection of the information environment of society, ensuring its formation, use and development in the interests of citizens, organizations, and the state.

INFORMATION SYSTEM- an organizationally ordered set of documents (arrays of documents) and information technologies, including the use of computer technology and communication, implementing information processes;

INFORMATION COMPATIBILITY- the ability of two or more computers or systems to adequately perceive equally presented data. Part of information interoperability, as well as a means of ensuring it, is the interoperability of data presentation formats.

INFORMATION SPHERE (ENVIRONMENT)- the sphere of activity of subjects related to the creation, transformation and consumption of information.

INFORMATION SUPPLY (IO)- 1. The totality of a unified system of classification and coding of information, unified documentation systems and data arrays used in the automated system. - 2. Providing the user with the information he needs.

A set of linguistic algorithmic and technical means intended for storing, searching and issuing the necessary information.

INFORMATION PRODUCTS (PRODUCTS)- documented information prepared in accordance with the needs of users and intended or used to meet the needs of users.

INFORMATION PROCESSES- processes of collection, processing, accumulation, storage, search and dissemination of information.

INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES- individual documents and separate arrays of documents, documents and arrays of documents in information systems (libraries, archives, funds, databanks, other information systems).

INFORMATION SERVICES- actions of subjects (owners and owners) to provide users with information products.

INFORMATION SEARCH- methods and procedures for detecting information in the data array.

INITIALIZATION - the operation of assigning initial values ​​to changing values ​​(variables) before starting calculations (using this value), which should ensure the normal execution of the program.

Encapsulation - combining programs and data for execution; with AND, the program code can be placed among the data and initialized when accessing this data; initialization of the program code can lead to the use of the data placed in the body of this program.

INSTALLATION - the procedure for installing software or programs on a VM.

INSTRUCTION - 1. A document that provides instructions for the implementation of any process, action or work. I. is a prescription for performing manual or automated work leading to the receipt of the final product according to the original assignment; 2. Command of the VM processor.

Information Technology Toolkit- aggregate software products, the use of which allows you to achieve the goal set by the user

INSTRUMENT PANEL (STITCH)- a part of the display screen (line) intended to play the role of a control element, located, as a rule, at the top of the window. On I. p. buttons are located that correspond to certain user commands. The selection of such buttons is carried out only by pressing the left mouse button.

TOOL(in programming) - software, hardware or software and hardware tool that provides automation of design, development and maintenance of programs. Usually I.S. is intended to automate some work, a set of works or a stage of the technological cycle of the production of a software product. I.S. include editors, compilers, translators, assemblers, loaders, debuggers, and other systems.

INSTRUMENTAL COMPLEX(for intelligent systems) - a software and hardware system designed to form the structures of knowledge bases and intelligent systems, generate an intelligent application system and for the presentation, transmission, processing, debugging and storage of knowledge.

Software tools. - Programs used in the development, adjustment or development of other programs: editors, debuggers, auxiliary system programs, graphics packages, etc. By their purpose, they are similar to programming systems.

INTELLIGENT PROGRAMMING TOOLKIT- software or software and hardware (a tool and a toolkit for intelligent programming) designed for input, processing, saving, debugging and outputting results, synthesizing a program of such objects as knowledge, lexicons and queries, as well as for initializing and configuring an intelligent system ...

Integrated circuit. - The implementation of an electronic circuit that performs a certain function in the form of a single semiconductor crystal, in which all the components necessary to perform this function are manufactured.

INTEGRATOR - a functional analog block of an analog VM, continuously performing the operation of integrating a certain value. There is a tracking I., with parallel or sequential transfer, partially impulsive, etc. Mechanical I. is called an integraph.

INTEGRATION OF SCIENCE- the trend in the development of science, manifested in the merger of various scientific directions and branches and in the penetration of the methods of one branch of knowledge into other branches. So, as a result, the penetration of informatics into other sciences (in the process of integration) gives rise to new informatics sciences, for example, informatics of mathematics, informatics of biology, informatics of sports, etc.

Integrated software packages. - Software packages that perform a number of functions for which specialized programs were previously created - in particular, text editors, spreadsheets, database management systems, graphing and charting programs.

INTELLIGENCE (in computer science) - a measure of the ability of a system to logically deduce a solution to a problem on the basis of knowledge, as well as to detect consistency, independence and completeness of knowledge.

VM INTELLIGENCE- the process of inventing, designing, developing and implementing tools for an intelligent VM user interface. I.VM can be assessed in the following nominations: 1. Visibility or external intelligence, 2. Meaningfulness or internal intelligence (equipment with languages), 3. Conceptuality or foundations of the complex, 4. Availability of a database for interconnection, integrity and security of data, 5. Logical conclusion to build answers to user requests, 6. Software for customizability, adaptability, 7. System - the social life of the complex. The average expert assessment speaks about the intelligence of the program and the VM on which it operates.

INTELLIGENT DATABASE- a database that contains data connection logic that allows you to form and select related data and datasets. The concept of IDB blurs the line between databases and knowledge.

INTELLIGENT DATA MODEL- segregated logic, control mechanisms, constraints that should be applied when accessing data regardless of specific applications and which can be associated with the records or associations themselves. I.m.d. is used to check the correctness of data that meets the specified requirements.

INTELLIGENT SYSTEM(Intellsist) is a human-machine or object-machine software system that logically deduces the solution of a logical equation that formally represents the user's knowledge and requests or messages from the environment in communication with the clarification of knowledge. The algorithm for solving the problem is built or generated automatically on the basis of the logical conclusion (proof) of a query on the knowledge base entered into the VM memory. The mathematical definition of I. is a program for the logical inference of a user's query in propositional calculus or in predicate calculus, given by the user's axioms and the calculus rules that make up the knowledge base (axioms of the problem area), queries are an initial statement or a theorem-statement in the calculus extended by the axioms of the problem area.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY- products of creative work, the distribution and use of which is governed by legal regulations that establish the exact sanctions of the owner for the rights to use, copy and distribute these products. To I.S. include algorithms, databases and knowledge, programs, software packages, etc.

INTELLIGENT SUPPORT- a set of data and knowledge that allows you to logically resolve a specific class of problems.

INTELLIGENT PROGRAMMING- a new direction in computer science, based on the input into the VM of knowledge about the subject and problem areas (represented by logical dependencies, mainly in natural language) and the logical inference of the response to user requests (as a result of solving a logical equation), also expressed by logical dependencies. Instrumentation I. p. are intelligent systems or, in particular, expert systems.

INTELLIGENT SUBSCRIBER TERMINAL- a terminal containing software for performing various service operations. I.A.T. focused on the use of natural language tools for human-machine communication.

INTELLIGENT INTERFACE- an auxiliary system of software and hardware that ensures the use of VM programs by the end user in solving problems of his professional activity without the help of programmers or with little help from a knowledge scientist. I. and. performs the functions of setting tasks, forming an information environment and presenting data or programs.

INTERACTIVE MACHINE GRAPHICS- dynamic control of a person through the terminal with computer graphics for pattern recognition, drawing graphs and drawings, creating maps, automating drawing and design work, modeling, animation, process control, for art and advertising.

INTERVIEWING- oral dialogue between the researcher and the developer, customer or consumer in order to collect information about a certain product to assess development tools, funding and consumer qualities. For statistical processing The results of the I. are used by the VM.

INTERPRETER - VM software that executes the program of some (possibly other) VM command by command in the sequence prescribed by this program, generally speaking, another VM. The execution of each command is carried out according to a program that simulates the execution of this command.

INTERPRETATION - comparison of all initial concepts and relations of some mathematical objects and relations between them. The ultimate goal of I. is to define the meaning of the formulas of a given formalized language. In this case, any formula of a given language is compared according to certain rules to another formula of another language, and it is considered that both formulas mean the same thing.

INTERPRETING SYSTEM- software of the object VM, which performs the operations of the program of another (interpreted) machine, written in a formal language, without the preliminary formation of the code of the program of the object VM. An interpreted VM program operation is most often implemented by calling an object VM subroutine from a library.

Interface - means providing interconnection between objects of the "human - computer" system. Distinguish between: hardware interface - interaction between computer devices; software interface - interaction (compatibility) of programs with each other, as well as software and information resources; hardware-software interface - the interaction of computer hardware and software; user interface - human-computer interaction.

INTUITIONAL LOGIC- the area of ​​mathematical logic, recognizing potentially realizable infinite sets and covering research on the construction of algorithms and the study of their properties.

INTUITION - the ability of a person to find the right solution without a clear understanding of the process as a result of which this solution was obtained. Distinguish I. sensual, associative, search, scientific, conceptual, acting and intellectual.

INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE- direct knowledge of the meaning of concepts or facts, the receipt of which is based on intuition.

INFORMATIZATION OF THE COMPANYsocio-economic, scientific and technical process of creating optimal conditions for meeting the information needs of citizens, government bodies, local government organizations, public associations based on the formation and use of information resources.

INFORMATIC - a specialist engaged in implementation or research work in the field of informatics. I. in a production environment is called a systems programmer or knowledge engineer. The main duties of the second are to acquire knowledge about knowledge, to look for forms of representation, transfer and indication of knowledge, to develop methods and programs for storing and replenishing knowledge in the memory of a VM, as well as methods for protecting knowledge from destruction.

Computer science - a science that studies the regularities of the flow of processes of transmission, storage and processing of information in nature, society, technology, as well as ways of automating these processes using a computer.

INFORMATIC LOGIC- logical foundations of informatics, designed to build a calculus for solving logical equations to search for the desired object (new knowledge). See also logic of computer science.

INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE - a set of various means of searching, transferring, providing and processing information or knowledge and the synthesis of new knowledge, which are an important resource of society.

INFORMATION MODEL- representation of the object model by means of one of the types of knowledge: descriptively (texts), semantically (networks), conceptually (conceptually), coded (codes), axiomatically (formulas with truth values), procedurally (algorithmic) or systemically (intelligent systems).

Information - information about the world around us; information for a person - knowledge that he receives from various sources. A message received by a person can replenish his knowledge if the information contained in it is understandable and new for a person.

INFORMATION NEED- a property of an individual, team or any system that reflects the need to obtain information corresponding to the nature of the actions or work performed.

INFORMATION SYSTEM- hardware and software system for storing and issuing data or messages on demand. The main types of I.S. - reference, search, advertising, etc.

INFORMATION SCHEME- graph of data streams in the program; the nodes of this graph are associated with actions, and the arcs are associated with data transmission. I.S. most often combined with a block diagram of the interaction of control modules. I.S. is an important means of representing streaming (functional) computing systems.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY- a set of methods for creating, processing and storing information, implemented in the process of information production. I.t. is designed to identify patterns of the most efficient and economical information processing processes. I.t. covers all means of storage and transmission of representations of knowledge, computers, communications technology, television and radio broadcasting.

INFORMATION ECONOMY- a set of production relations in a given socio-economic formation in information production.

INFORMATION SUPPORT- documents and programs containing standard procedures, typical solutions, execution rules, data for solving a certain class of problems.

INFORMATION SOCIETY- the society of the future, which is influenced by informatics and computer technology, minimizing contradictions in society and increasing the intensity of using information from a wide variety of sources (libraries, radio, computers, etc.).

INFORMATION FIELD- one of the three fields (gravitational, energetic and informational), in which life on Earth takes place, influencing flows of information and knowledge, for example, on the human sense organs through the signaling system.

INFORMATION PRODUCTION- the process of creating and disseminating information or its representations. As in material production, two sides of the mode of production can be distinguished: productive information forces - people, participants in information production, information production relations - a set of information relations between people in the production process, distribution and consumption of information.

INFORMATION SEARCH SYSTEM(ISS) is a hardware and software system designed for storing and accumulating data in a database, promptly searching for information in accordance with the user's requests and issuing messages to him based on the search results.

Information for a person- knowledge that he receives from various sources. A message received by a person can replenish his knowledge if the information contained in it is understandable and new for a person.

Information culture- the ability to purposefully work with information and use computer information technology, modern technical means and methods to receive, process and transmit it.

Information model -a set of information about an object or process.

Information channels- human senses, as well as telephone, radio, television, computer. With their power, people exchange information.

Executor - a person, a group of people, an animal or a technical device capable of executing given commands. Distinguish between informal and formal performers. An informal performer can execute the same command in different ways. A formal executor always performs the same command in the same way. For each formal executor, you can specify the range of tasks to be solved, the environment, the command system, the system of failures and modes of operation.

Sourse of information- the one who transmits information.

INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES- funds, values, reserves, opportunities, sources of funds intended for storage, processing, distribution and consumption of information in order to obtain new knowledge.

INFORMATION RESOURCES OF THE STATE- a direct product of the information production of the most qualified and creatively active part of the able-bodied population of the country. The basis of I.R.G. make up: research and design developments that allow you to create science-intensive products, patents, licenses, technical and scientific ideas, inventions, scientific publications, conference materials, etc. Active I.R.G. is the information entered, processed and stored in the VM in the form of knowledge representation.

INFORMATION EXPLOSION- a rapid increase in the total amount of information (boom) created in any industry, field of activity or society as a whole at a certain stage of development, as well as in the memory of a VM with memory constraints or a poor coding method.

INFORMATION CRISIS- a transient, unstable state of any system associated with a serious disruption in the organization of information flows and the implementation of information processes.

INFORMATION FLOW [ information flow] - information in orderly movement in given directions with fixation of the start, intermediate and end points.

INFORMATION BODY- an institution or unit that constantly carries out information work... There are the following Acting: center, institute, bureau, department; head, branch, specialized, territorial, as well as technical, scientific or scientific and technical.

INFORMATION - a set of facts, phenomena or events of interest and subject to registration and processing. I. - the meaning of data with certain conventions adopted for the process of perception. I. refers to knowledge communicated by someone or obtained as a result of research, analysis or training. The physical meaning of I. is the result of the interaction of material objects, transmitted through the material channel. I. is the basic concept of cybernetics. I. are: bibliographic, secondary, incoming, selective, outgoing, graphic, documentary, redundant, true, original, false, scientific, incomplete, review, operational, industry, patent, primary, written, political, complete, user, production, industrial, relevant, retrospective, abstract, semantic, signal, social, current, thematic, technical, oral, factual, phonetic, purposeful, digital, economic, elementary.

INFORMATION - the process of bringing information or information to the interested consumer.

EXCEPTION - designation of an error situation that may occur during program execution. Throwing an exception consists in terminating the normal execution of the program by signaling an error. Processor I. - a reserve part of the program, executed only when the corresponding I.

EXCEPTIONAL SITUATION- see exception.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE(AI) is a section or discipline of computer science that studies methods, methods and techniques for modeling and reproducing intelligent human activities related to solving a problem using a VM. The fundamental goals of AI are to study methods of representing knowledge, describing facts, patterns, studying methods of processing data presented in natural language, studying methods of understanding and reproducing speech and purposeful behavior of a person or device. AI is implemented in intelligent (expert) systems, inference programs, robotics, and in the construction of knowledge bases.

USE OF KNOWLEDGE- a means of reflecting known knowledge, which can be used with benefit in industry, science, culture and in everyday life.

KNOWLEDGE TESTING- the process of establishing the correspondence of knowledge from the base to the initial requirements and documents for creating a knowledge base by running test tasks.

TESTING THE PROGRAM- the process of establishing compliance of the VM program with the specified requirements and program documents by running test tasks.

STUDY - the study of objects and phenomena, processes of the material, energetic or informational world, aimed at identifying their inherent patterns and performed by certain methods. Often the concept of I. is expressed by the term "study" - it is broader. I. There are laboratory, survey, scientific, conceptual, useful, applied, theoretical, experimental.

TRUE - correct and adequate reflection of objects, phenomena or processes of reality by a cognizing subject or VM, reproducing them as they exist outside and independently of consciousness; the objective content of human cognition. I. contains an element of absolute knowledge. The criterion for the reliability of I. is practice. I. is always specific.

TRUTH OF KNOWLEDGE- correspondence of knowledge to objective reality; correct reflection of the real world in scientific concepts, judgments, inferences, theories, facts, rules, etc.

SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE - any system using means of storing and processing information. Such systems are sign, language, writing, book, theory, algorithm, VM.

INITIAL DATA - data for the formation or solution of the problem. Developed by I.D. precedes the development of algorithms.

CALCULUS - a set of the language of correctly constructed formulas, axioms and inference rules, presented in a certain language of formulas; the basis of inductive, deductive or information systems. There are I. of statements, open predicates, predicates of the first order, predicates of higher orders, etc.

CALCULATION OF STATEMENTS- a way of formalizing logical reasoning, which takes into account only the logical structure of statements.

FRAME - 1. A single message of a certain standardized format transmitted over channels. 2. Information in the form of a single whole, presented on the screen (carrier) of the terminal as a result of information retrieval or the formation of a message.

CALCULATOR - portable VM for small capacity calculations. K. are of the simplest, engineering, programmable, equipped with small printing devices and with replaceable programs.

CHANNEL - a device (for example, computer technology) designed to transfer data between two other devices. K. can be subscriber, analog, discrete, informational, trunk, multiplex, machine, reverse, data transmission, direct, communication, selector, physical, logical, etc.

COMMUNICATION CHANNEL (DATA TRANSMISSION)- a part of the network connecting each pair of its terminal terminals and consisting of technical means for transmitting and receiving data, including a communication line, as well as software and protocols.

PENCIL (light) - a device for identifying data on the display screen in the mode of dialogue with the VM. K. is also called a light pen.

CARD ROOM - a collection of cards, arranged and systematized in a certain order and used for reference work. K. is not connected with the collection of documents, it is a manual information retrieval system. K. can be bibliographic, vertical, rotating, auxiliary, magazine, titles, translations, flat, suspended, abstract, summary, special, reference, factographic, elevator. The order of the cards is determined by alphabet, themes, author names, etc.

CATALOG - A collection of datasets or short descriptions used by a control or system program to locate an object and available for reference and other applications. K. is author's, alphabetical, auxiliary, newspapers, general, geographical, magazines, editions, publishing, card, machine, numbering, general, industry, cross, printed, auxiliary, subject, working, consolidated, systematic, with edge perforation, special , trade, corporate, chronological, central, reader.

CATALOGIZATION - the process of preparing and compiling a catalog from descriptions; distribution and systematization of these descriptions.

KILOBITE (KB) - the same as a kilobyte, equal to 1024 bytes.

QUANTIZATION - 1. One of the ways to share VM resources, time between two or more resource consumers. K. prevents the possibility of prolonged downtime of consumers due to lack of resources. K. also has a conversion of analog values ​​into discrete ones. 2. The process of forming a discrete representation of a quantitative characteristic, which had the form of a continuous value.

QUANTIZATION - 1. the operation of converting data from a continuous form to a discrete one; - 2. division of data into subgroups (classes), for example, in digital image processing.

QUANTOR - the general name of logical operations that, according to a predicate, construct a statement that characterizes the region of truth of this predicate. To. Universality means that the range of truth of the predicate coincides with the range of the variable. K. existence means that the range of truth of the predicate is not empty. K. are widely used in natural language: K. universality is expressed in words for, for everyone, etc., K. existence - in words exists, to find, etc.

CYBERNETICS - the science of the general laws of control in nature, the animal world, society and in artificially created systems based on information feedback. K. is based on mathematics, the theory of automata, the theory of operations research, the theory of optimal control, the theory of algorithms, the theory of information, and others.

CYBERNETIC KNOWLEDGE- knowledge about systems, represented by sets of interconnected sign objects (arrays, tables, graphs, figures, etc.).

KILOBITE (KB) a unit of measure for the size of the data memory. KB = 1024 bytes.

KEYBOARD - an external device of keys arranged in a certain order (a matrix of labeled keys) for generating symbols (generating a signal to the system) by pressing a key. K. Used in typewriter, personal VM, printing device. Keys are classified into data keys and control keys.

CLASS - the highest taxonomic category in the systematics of facts, data, programs, libraries, etc. K is an element of the classification system, taken as the main one and representing a collection of objects, phenomena, etc., united by one or several characteristics. K. is also a classroom or a group of students.

Object class - a group of objects, united by one or more of the same parameters.

Keyboard - the most important device for entering information texts into the computer memory. All its keys are conventionally divided into the following groups: function keys; symbolic (alphanumeric) keys; cursor control keys; special keys; additional keyboard.

CLASSIFICATION - 1. A system of subordinate concepts in any area or type of knowledge, used as a means to establish links between these concepts. K. is a system, the structure of which provides for the ordered arrangement of a set of any objects, phenomena or processes on the basis of establishing connections and dependencies between the signs of these things. K. is library, auxiliary, dichotomous, decimal, natural, hierarchical, artificial, multidimensional, basic, patent, subject, universal, faceted. 2. The process of attributing a thing to a certain subdivision of a given classification, carried out on the basis of determining the presence or absence of the given features of a thing

OLE client - an application that uses an OLE object.

Clients - network computers that have access to information resources or server devices.

CLIENT - SERVER - architecture or organization of building a network (including local and distributed), in which the computational load is divided between the computers included in its structure, performing the functions of "clients" and one powerful central computer - the "server".

KEY - a data item or a combination thereof used to identify and / or locate an instance of a data group; a rule for the relationship between codes when converting them.

KEYWORD (reserved word) - a lexeme that, when used in a given context, determines the interpretation of the context in which it is used or serves as a search feature.

Key - a field that uniquely identifies the corresponding entry.

Code - a system of conventional symbols for the presentation of information.

CODE - a system of symbols and unambiguous rules for their interpretation, used to represent data or commands in a discrete form with their subsequent processing in a VM. K. is used to prescribe the way data is represented by signs of a certain set. Other interpretations of the concept of K. are similar. K. is a means of mapping characters from one set to characters from another set of characters according to the coding rules. To. - a system of conventional signs (symbols) and their combinations, which are assigned certain values ​​and which are used in encoding. K. is a set of words of one alphabet, which is put in a one-to-one correspondence with a set of words of another alphabet. K. can be additive, alphabetical, binary, additional, combinational, correcting, magnetic, irreversible, irreducible, reversible, inverse, optimal, optical, parity, perforation, full, ordinal, direct, uniform, selector, semantic, triangular, color, digital ...

Coding - recording information using a specific code.

Code table - a table specifying the correspondence of symbols and their codes.

QUANTITY OF INFORMATION- a measure of reducing the uncertainty of a certain situation arising from the fact that the outcomes of another situation become known.

"Kolobok" - an external device used for manual control by moving the cursor on the display screen. "TO." looks like a box, rolling freely on any surface. The main sensor "K." is a ball with a grid of division for fixing two angular coordinates with an accuracy of a degree. Any movement of "K." changes the angular coordinates of the ball and the position of the cursor vertically and horizontally. Move "K." can be accompanied by the issuance of a control signal by the VM by pressing the button set to "K."

COMMAND - a single step of the operation of the executive device of the VM, presented in the form of a prescription in machine language. To. Contains an operation code and, possibly, operands and an elementary act of the process of executing a VM program.

A COMMENT - a sequence of any characters (starting with two hyphens) used to increase the readability of a program or knowledge and intended for humans. To. Is an optional text for the program, separated by special characters. K. does not affect the correctness or incorrectness of the program and its meaning. K. is intended to explain, interpret the text or any part of it.

Compact disc (CD-ROM).- Permanent memory, made using special optical technology. In the range of storage devices, it occupies a place between floppy and hard drives, being both mobile and very capacious.

COMPILED MODULE- a module included in the compilation along with a context specifier indicating the module's execution environment.

COMPILING PROGRAM- software, which, before starting the execution of a working program, brings together all its parts, program modules.

COMPILER - system program(or technical device) that translates VM programs from one programming language into machine code and assembles modules into a single program. K. is interactive, optimizing, debugging, testing and industrial.

COMPLEX - a set of objects, phenomena or processes that make up one whole. K. are basic, computing, display, robotic, terminal, specialized, typical.

COMPOSITION - the operation of joining, in a sense, two or more objects or their values ​​to obtain a new object or value. For example, the K. of two functions is the result of applying the first function to the result of the second function.

COMPONENT - an object that is part of a more complex object; a datum that is part of a more general (complex) composite datum. A component is called a subcomponent.

COMPUTER - the same as VM.

COMPUTERIZATION- universal training of people in computer science, computational mathematics and other sciences for the effective use of VM in all spheres of human activity. K. is also a restructuring of all types of human activity, aimed at the constant and widespread use of VM.

COMPUTER LITERACY- a set of knowledge, abilities and skills in the use of computer science and computer technology for solving problems of various kinds, for recreation and for using the VM as a tool of intellectual labor. K.g. is based on general educational and cultural literacy, including the understanding of such objects as a symbol, language, concept, data, truth of statements, algorithm and human-VM system.

CONVERTER - software tool for transcoding data from one machine code to another or from one format to another.

LANGUAGE CONVERTER - a translator from one high-level language to another high-level language.

END BLUR LOGIC- the area of ​​informatics logic, using a finite set of truth values ​​deduced in multivalued logics. Difference K.r.l. from multi-valued logic is the same as informative logic differs from classical logics.

CONCATENATION (CATENATION) - the operation of combining two texts into one text or two sequences of objects into one sequence.

CONCRETE (subroutine or package) - a library module designed to form an instance of a subroutine or package for specified name template. Essentially, K. is a macro call that forms an instance of a program being executed by means of a high-level language.

SPECIFIC CONCEPT- a concept that reflects the given object itself, the phenomenon itself or the process itself, a class of objects, phenomena or processes.

CONSTANT - own scalar or composite data, which does not change its value during program execution and is the original data.

CONTROL OF PROGRAM RECORDING CORRECTLY- the method of informatics, which establishes the correctness of the recording and identification of operations in expressions and operators to control the logic of the use of language constructions. Efficiency method. is designed to automate the process of searching for syntactic, semantic, logical and pragmatic errors, in particular, the correct use of combined identifiers and designations of operations.

Controller. - A device that connects peripheral equipment or communication channels with the central processor, freeing the processor from direct control of the operation of this equipment.

CONTROL OF VALUES OWNING VALUES- the method of informatics to establish the belonging of the values ​​obtained during the calculation to a specific set of values ​​to ensure the reliability of the process of forming structures from linguistic primitives; K.p.z.m. are also methods of syntactic and semantic description of types and subtypes, their attributes and allowed operations on them.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION- the expression or representation of a specific set of elements of the system, related by specific relationships, characteristics or connections among themselves

Command - one sentence in a language to indicate actions.

Communication environmentis a set of conditions for the exchange of information.

A computer - a universal software-controlled device for working with information; can be used for many purposes: processing, storage and transmission of a wide variety of information, application in a wide variety of human activities; a system that includes subsystems of hardware, software and information resources.

Computer graphics- different types of graphic images created or processed using a computer

Computer modelis a model implemented by means of a software environment.

Computer design- the process of creating a computer object from typical elementary objects.

Computer network- a system of interconnected computers and terminals designed for the transmission, storage and processing of information.

Computer communications Wednesday - a set of conditions necessary for the exchange of information between people through computers.

Computer techologies- information technology based on computer data processing.

Constructor - the mode in which the construction of the table or form is carried out.

CONCEPTUAL SUPPORT- a set of concepts and their definitions, establishing the subject and problem area for posing and solving problems.

CONCEPTUAL PROGRAMMING- direction in computer science, based on the description of concepts to express the meaning and form of a specific problem, according to the description of which results can be automatically obtained or programs are synthesized for execution. K. p. includes such a kind of programming as object-oriented.

Context menu- the menu associated with the object. The context menu is expanded by right-clicking when the mouse pointer is over an object. Through the context menu, you can view the properties of the object (in some cases, you can change them), as well as perform valid actions on the object.

CONJUNCTION - logical operation "and", which takes on a true value only when both operands are true values.

COPY - making a copy of some records or messages in another part of the memory (storage device), for example, to prevent the loss or distortion of important records or messages.

COPY - the same record or message as the original, constituting the circulation for the dissemination or protection of information.

CORTEGE - a composite value formed by a variable or an infinite number of components of the same type - the elements of K. (as opposed to an aggregate).

Conjunction "I" - a logical operation that has the value "true" if all the components of the statement are true together.

Basket - system folder where the files to be deleted are placed. The file physically disappears from the computer's memory only after emptying the recycle bin.

Corporate network- consolidation of local networks within one corporation.

CRYPTOGRAPHY - a set of methods and means of semantic transformation of information in order to ensure the secrecy of its content; protecting a message by turning it into a meaningless set of characters, which can only be deciphered by a person or device that knows the key; before the message is transmitted, its encoding is implemented, and upon receipt, decoding.

CRITERION - a quantitative or qualitative feature, which, when evaluating (comparing), is taken as the most significant. K. is designed to evaluate and / or select an object, phenomenon or process from an acceptable set. To. Is used to select the optimal item or process from an acceptable set or to evaluate the existing items or processes.

CROSS - a prefix for a word denoting a software tool on a VM other than the VM on which the tool is resident (for example, cross-assembler, cross-translator, cross-compiler, etc.).

CROSS-COMPILATOR- a compiler that converts-translates a program written in one of the programming languages ​​into a machine language with a command system (architecture) different from the one on which the compilation is performed.

CURSOR - a mark (symbol) on the display screen in the form of a light spot, for example, a blinking underscore, indicating the place where the next character can be displayed. The shape of K. can be different, and the display is stable in glow, blinking or indistinguishable.

CACHE MEMORY - a kind of random access memory for storing the most frequently used commands and data from random access memory.

Laser (optical)disk - an information carrier in the form of a plastic or aluminum disk, intended for recording and / or reading information using a laser beam.

LEXICOGRAPHIC ORDER- the order on a set of texts, in which one text precedes the other, if its constituent symbols, starting from the first (from left to right), are less in value, if the values ​​of the symbols are equal, there are fewer of them.

LEXICON - a dictionary of terms used to describe the subject and problem areas, along with the characteristics of each term, its meaning and definition. L. is the foundation of the knowledge base.

LEXIC ANALYSIS- part of the grammatical parsing of texts (for example, programs) for highlighting tokens and then replacing them with conditional codes to facilitate further parsing. Procedure L.a. generates tables of tokens created by the author of the text.

LEMMA - an auxiliary sentence used in the proof of other statements.

LEMMATIZATION - automatic compilation of dictionaries.

Laptop (knee pad).- A computer. It is similar in size to a regular portfolio. In terms of the main characteristics (performance, memory), it roughly corresponds to desktop personal computers.

LIMITED TYPE- a personal type with a description deferred to the corresponding personal section of the package and with a limited number of operations determined by the introduction of this type.

LINGUISTICS - a branch of knowledge dealing with the study of a language (its structure, properties, etc.). L. is mathematical and structural.

LINGUISTIC ERROR- the result of misuse of the forms and characteristics of terms in known contexts. L.o. are detected automatically by tables, dictionaries of words and terms (using the lexicon) when translating source texts into the formal internal language of Leibniz.

LINGUISTIC PROCESSOR- a mathematical machine, the processor of which implements the operational primitives of a certain programming language, and memory - descriptions of objects of this language.

LINGUISTIC SUPPORT- a set of data languages, programming languages ​​and their descriptions used in a specific area of ​​solving a class of problems

Linear Algorithm- an algorithm in which commands are executed in the order in which they are written, that is, sequentially one after another.

Program List - a sheet containing all programs and allowing them to be edited.

LIPS - a unit of measurement of performance when performing logical inference according to a program composed of operations-steps of logical inference, applying transformation rules. LIPS is expressed in inference steps per second. In modern logic programming, the speed of programs is characterized by the number of 10,000 steps per second.

LISTING - printout of representations of data and programs as a result, for example, broadcast of a program; L. may contain the text of the source program, intermediate or object code, a table of links or characteristics, diagnostic

messages, etc. Texts of different form in the printout can be compared in pairs (bilisting), three each (trilisting), etc.

LITER - element of the alphabet. L. are written, printed, sound, impulse, punched. Each L. has an idea.

LITERAL - an image of a value of a certain type, which specifies in the program the corresponding basic operation of converting an image into a value; see numeric literal, enumeration literal, null literal, and character literal.

LITERAL LIST- a term denoting meaning or modality in multi-valued logics.

LITERAL EMPTY - the only basic operation on a reference type to get a reference to nothing; a basic operation, specified by the reserved word null, that produces a null reference value that does not point to any object at all.

PERSONAL TYPE - a type, the description of which is deferred and is located in the personal section of the package and the use of which is limited only by the package. L.t. can be limited, limited, then fewer operations are applicable to the data of the type.

LOGICS - the science of methods of proof and refutation; a set of scientific theories. The most common are deductive and inductive logic. L. can be probabilistic, two-valued, mathematical, multivalued, modal, normative, formal, intuitionistic, and informational.

LOGIC OF INFORMATICS (IL)- theoretical foundations of computer science based on methods for solving logical equations. IL is called informative logic, it consists of the language of professional prose, a set of axioms for determining constants, quantities and operations, a set of inference rules and a single axiom "truth" to designate the goal of logical inference (see informatics logic).

LOGIC COMPUTER- VM, for which logic programming is the basis of programming: objects, operations and statements about them are declared, the processor builds an output of the statement (user request) and finds the conditions for their truth.

LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE DEBUGGING- establishment of global and local consistency, independence and completeness of knowledge in the base and queries.

LOGICAL RECORD- a piece of data for processing or as a result of one processing step. L.Z. - it is also a unit of exchange of a program with a database or data bank, with a knowledge base.

LOGIC PROCESSOR- a virtual processor used when it is necessary to execute several programs (tasks) in parallel with one or more physical processors.

LOGIC TYPE - a predefined enumerated type of two enumeration literals, false or true, false or true related by the well-known inequality relation Lying .

LOGICAL EXPRESSION- an expression that, as a result of execution, takes a truth value from a set (false, true).

LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE INFORMATION AND COMPUTING NETWORK- a form of representation of an information-computing network in the form of its interconnected logical elements - functions performed by systems.

Logic element (gate).- A part of an electronic logic circuit that performs an elementary logical function.

Logical statement.- Any proposition in relation to which it is possible to say unambiguously whether it is true or false.

LOCAL DB - a database located on one or several media on one computer;

LOGIC PROGRAMMING- a new direction in computer science, based on a set of techniques for formalizing knowledge about a problem and setting tasks in the language of logical calculus, transferring them to a VM to replenish the knowledge base necessary for solving a problem or task, or for synthesizing programs. L. p. provides a study on machine theorem proving, which considers the specification of the problem in the form logical expression, the output tree of this expression and the extraction of the algorithm (program) from the output tree. L. p. is the basis for the automatic synthesis of programs.

LOGICAL EQUATION- analytical record of the problem of finding the values ​​of the arguments for which the values ​​of the two given logical functions are equal. The arguments on which these functions depend are usually called unknowns, and the values ​​of the unknowns for which the logical values ​​of the functions are equal are called solutions of the equation.

LOCAL COMPUTING NETWORK- a set of computing means of terminal devices, means of information exchange, united in a distributed data processing system, all elements of which are located in a small area and have a common channel for transmitting messages.

Logics - a science that studies the laws and forms of thinking, methods of reasoning and evidence.

Logical model- a model in which various conditions are analyzed

LOCAL OBJECT- an object internal to a given program or a given program module (defined in the composition), which takes an initial value when the program or program module is executed and, possibly, loses it after the program is executed and a new value is assigned.

The local network - unification of computers located at short distances from each other.

MEGABYTE (Mb) is a unit of measure for a data warehouse. MB = 1024 KB.

SHOP - sequentially organized memory with a top, which, when the M. is full, is freed, pushing the data deeper, and when the M. is freed, it is filled, pushing the data out of the M. (see stack).

DATA STORE - see data stack.

HIGHWAY - an internal communication channel of devices in a VM, which serves to exchange data between devices.

LAYOUT (programs) - a previously created program, a draft design of the program, a trial copy of the program, the properties and functions of which correspond to the program, which is the final software product.

MACRO ASSEMBLER - a macro generator, the base language of which is assembly language.

MACRO CHALLENGE - an indication in the (macro) program about the need to substitute a certain program template, configured according to its settings and ready for execution.

MACRO GENERATOR - a system program that replaces the macros of the source language with a specific equivalent sequence of commands in the object language. A set of macros forms a macro library. The source of generating object text is a macro definition. Object text generation is the process of obtaining object text by macro definitions as a result of a macro call by a macro command. M. deals with the instantiation of configuring a custom module to obtain an instance of a subroutine or package.

MACRO COMMAND - a line of code of the source program, which initiates the procedure for forming a line of code of the object program.

MACRO DEFINITION- a set of templates corresponding to a separate macro, and an algorithm for calculating the inserted text using these templates, taking into account the properties and parameter values.

MACRO PROGRAMMING- a method of informatics, containing methods of syntactic and semantic description of development tools, parametric custom software modules that are used to automatically generate various instances of executable modules. The actual settings can be objects, data types, subroutines and texts. Method M. is designed to create software templates for a family of different programs. Concretization of templates leads to a form suitable for execution. The M. method is usually formalized in assembly languages ​​and sometimes formalized in high-level programming languages.

MACRO - command programming tool indicating the need to insert text instead of it, obtained from templates and its actual parameters.

MACRO LEVEL - top level a certain hierarchy of elements adopted and involved in the design and development processes (macromodules, macros, etc.).

Master - a software module for performing any operations.

MARKER - a special sign on the information carrier to indicate the boundaries of the zone and to recognize the properties of the recorded information.

MASK - positional code, each bit of which serves to perform a specific function, for example, allocation of a bit, byte, word, etc.

ARRAY - an object of an indexed type, whose values ​​are aggregates of values ​​of the same type. M. is a one- or multidimensional data structure, the elements of which are ordered in such a way that their description uniquely determines the position of each element or the path of access to it.

MASS STORAGE DEVICE, MASS STORAGE- 1. External mass storage. - 2. A backup storage system such as a tape cartridge library that can hold very large volumes of data records.

ZOOM- presentation of quantities in such a way that their values ​​and the results of operations with them are in the specified range. Scaling factors are used to bring the values ​​to the specified range.

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION- reception of proof of general provisions in mathematics and mathematical logic. The basic principle of MI: let P be some property of natural numbers; the number 0 corresponds to some property P; if the number n has some property P, then the next number has property P; then each natural number m has the property P. P (n) is an induction proposition, the variable n is an induction variable, P (0) is an induction basis, the properties of the natural number following n is an induction step.

MATHEMATICAL LINGUISTICS- a mathematical discipline, the subject of which is the development of a formal apparatus for describing the structure of natural and artificial languages.

MATHEMATICAL LOGIC- the field of mathematics, which studies formal systems using mathematical methods and special apparatus for the study of thinking using calculus. M.L. explores the patterns of inferred knowledge obtained from previously established and verified truths without resorting to experience. German philosopher and mathematician G.V. Leibniz was the first to introduce mathematical symbolism into logic. He dreamed of creating a logic in which the rules of inference would be replaced by computational rules. He presented the first sketches of the construction of logical calculus. G.V. Leibniz laid the foundation for the foundations of computer science.

MATH MACHINE (MM)- a virtual VM, implemented in software by the interpreter of the architecture of this VM. MM can be deterministic, probabilistic, non-deterministic, or deductive. MM is an abstract device or a programmed automaton that processes data or representations of information.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL- a complete set of mathematical objects (objects, numbers, variables, matrices, sets, points, figures, etc.) and relations between them, reflecting some properties of the thing being modeled.

MATHEMATICAL SIGNS- conventional graphic symbols intended for recording mathematical concepts, sentences and calculations. The very first M.Z. - numbers.

MATH MODELING- a method for studying natural (for example, physical) phenomena or processes using special information models; the method is based on the identity and unambiguity of the forms and relationships between the quantities (in the equations) of the original and the model.

MATHEMATICAL SUPPORT- a set of information models, methods and algorithms for solving tasks on a VM to resolve problems.

AUTOMATED SYSTEM MATHEMATICAL SUPPORT- a set of algorithms and programs necessary to control the system and solve with its help problems of information processing by computer technology.

A CAR (informational) - a device that mechanically performs operations of transforming information representations. M. can be diagnostic, virtual, computing, control, mathematical, keyboard, teaching, sorting, counting. In addition to informational M., there are energy M. (wedge, reactor, engine, etc.) and M. transformation of matter.

ALGEBRAIC OUTPUT MACHINE (MAB)a mathematical or physical machine that operates with expressions according to the laws of algebra to obtain solutions at the request of users. MAV is part of the processor of an intelligent system.

LOGICAL OUTPUT MACHINE (MLV)- a mathematical or physical machine operating with knowledge bases presented in some internal language and with user requests to display an answer to this request. MLV is a part of the processor of an intelligent (in particular, expert) system.

POST MACHINE - a kind of Turing machine.

TURING MACHINE [ Turing machine] is a mathematical machine that is defined by a finite number of states, a finite number of input and output symbols, and instructions for converting a pair (state, symbol) into a triplet (state, symbol, moving the tape one position). MT. studied to assess the general properties of algorithms and is usually used to establish the properties of mathematical machines of some structure.

MACHINE GRAPHICS- creation, processing, storage of models of objects or processes and their images using computers and terminal devices: printing devices, tablet or drum plotters, movie cameras or video recorders, display terminals, game VMs with TVs, game microprocessors, etc.

MACHINE-ORIENTED LANGUAGE- a programming language that allows you to take into account the peculiarities of the command system, data presentation and VM architecture. An example of M-o.ya. is an assembly language.

MACHINE (COMPUTER) GRAPHICS- the use of computer technology to create graphic images, display them by various means (for example, on a monitor screen, in the form of hard copies, etc.) and manipulate them.

MACHINE READABLE MEDIA- a medium suitable for direct recording and reading of data by technical means (computers).

MACHINE WORD - an ordered set of bits or a finite sequence of codes (characters) stored, selected or written from the RAM at one address as a single code group.

MACHINE TRANSLATE- translation of texts from one (usually natural) language to another, performed according to formal rules, implemented in the form of programs. M. p. includes text input, lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis, synthesis of the output text and its output from the VM. M. p. - the problem of programmable intelligence.

MACHINE LANGUAGE - a formal programming language for writing algorithms that takes into account all VM resources.

Mathematical model- a description of an object or process by a set of formulas linking their quantitative parameters.

Machine word - the number of bits (for example, 8, 16, or 32) that the processor has concurrent access to.

MEGAFLOP is a unit of VM performance, measured by the number of millions of operations per second over bits.

MAINFRAME - a large, high-performance computer with a very significant amount of RAM and external memory, which performs the functions of a server in developed local area networks (LAN) with a large number of peripheral computers and terminals.

Menu - a list of commands, by choosing which, the user can control the computer.

META - a prefix for words denoting the recursive (reflexive) application of the corresponding concept.

META-STATEMENT- a statement about a statement for its definition, analysis or synthesis.

METADATA - data about knowledge of data, information about data that are stored in data dictionaries, data models, schemas, and other representations.

METAPONY - a concept defined by a list of known and described concepts of the lower level of a certain classification. M. are used to classify concepts and define sets of known concepts for manipulation with them.

METARULE - a rule for constructing and using a rule in logic or analytical transformations.

METAPROGRAM - a program intended for processing other programs that are data for M, such as a compiler or assembler.

METASYMBOL - the symbol used in the construction of formal grammars.

METALANGUAGE - the language in which the consideration of any other language is carried out, the study of the structure of expressions, the proof of theorems about deductive properties and about relations to other languages ​​of the language in question. M. is a formal conditional language for the formal description of another language.

LABEL - operator identifier intended to indicate the point of the program text to which control can be transferred. M. is a simple name placed before a statement, block, or loop and used to jump to or exit from a block or loop. The use of M. to jump to the execution of this marked statement occurs after the execution of the jump statement from this M. Placing an M. in front of the statement or expression implicitly introduces a new identifier or term. The use of M. to exit a block or loop is carried out after the execution of an exit statement with this M.

METHOD - a way to achieve a goal, the process of solving a specific problem, a set of techniques and operations of practical or theoretical development (cognition) of reality.

ANALOGY METHOD - the method of informatics of the invention stage, designed to create a new object or process based on the use of analogies. M. a. uses practical analogies - direct, factual, literary, personal, mixed; theoretical analogies - physical, mathematical, technical, logical, functional, structural.

ACCESS METHOD - method and means of organizing storage and exchange of data between VM and storage devices. The most commonly used types of access: direct, random, virtual, sequential, index-sequential, library, graphic, index, hierarchical, etc., access methods: with queues and basic, collective and telecommunication.

RESEARCH METHOD- a method, a technique in which the study of an object, phenomenon or process is carried out.

METHODOLOGY - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity. M. science - the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. M. consists of three components: science, technology, and folklore.

PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY- a set of three sides: informatics (see definition), programming technology and pragmatics (practical applications). Pragmatics includes systematization of requests, experience, needs of programming practice.

METHOD TO INCREASE PROGRAMMING PERFORMANCE- methods of taking into account the human factor, reducing the complexity of the program, a possible decrease in the reliability of the program, reducing the limitations, using modern programming methods and tools, unification, using mathematical machines and high-level languages.

TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD- the method of informatics of the invention stage, based on finding ways to solve a problem and assessing their quality or suitability, their acceptance or rejection, depending on the success or failure in achieving the goal. M.p.o. involves a search by the vector of inertia - the use of habits, the ability to find bottlenecks, etc.; in all directions - the use of the multidimensional vector of inertia of thinking; in striving for the ideal end result - purposeful search, restraining aspirations, etc.; with abstraction from tendencies - transition to other tendencies; by combining other search techniques.

TOP-DOWN METHOD- a method, invention, design, development or maintenance of a program, consisting in the sequential creation of modules (or a sequential solution to a problem) that have not yet been created, but there is a link to them in already developed modules (for problems: from a general problem to its component parts) ...

BOTTOM-UP METHOD- a method of invention, design, development or maintenance of a program, consisting in the sequential creation of modules (or sequential solution of a problem), references to which will be used in the created modules (for problems: from its part to solving the target problem).

TECHNICAL SYNTHESIS METHOD- the method of informatics of the stage of invention, based on the use of: combining, from combining, crushing, rearranging, mediating, replacing; improving convenience from transfer, adaptation, change of states; changes in the quality of forms, strengthening, weakening; cost factors from reduction in price, revaluation; on the use of techniques for constructing anti-objects: anti-objects, anti-phenomena or anti-processes.

FOCAL OBJECT METHOD- the method of informatics of the invention stage, based on the analysis of the properties of the initial and resulting objects and the formation of a new object by attributing the properties of the original objects to the result object. For example, earth-ball (original object), house-dwelling (resulting object) - we build a house-ball. M.F.O. can use sets of original objects or properties to create new objects or properties.

METHODS FOR FORMING NEW KNOWLEDGE- a set of techniques and methods for constructing new descriptions, ways of understanding, definitions of concepts, representations, formalizations and use of knowledge. There are a significant number of specific ways, among which it can be noted: searching for the required data, reasoning about data and representations of information, combining and disaggregating data, building modules, controlling the state or development of objects, phenomena or processes, building action plans, compiling new ideas, learning , analysis and synthesis, as well as other methods and techniques.

MICROCALCULATOR- portable microcomputer for personal use. M. are the simplest, engineering and programmable.

MICROPROGRAM - a sequence of micro-instructions of a specific microprocessor and data, designed to execute macros (processor instructions or machine instructions).

MICROPROGRAMMING - the representation of machine instructions as a sequence of micro-instructions (or microprogram), usually implemented in hardware and software.

MICROPROCESSOR - a processor, usually constructed on a single chip or in the form of a large integrated circuit, performing a small number of the simplest operations from which microprograms are composed.

IIPS - unit of measurement of VM performance; M. is equal to 1 million operations per second.

Mnemocode - symbolic record of a command, including records of the opcode, operands, addresses, etc. of this command, in machine-oriented programming languages ​​or assembly languages.

IMAGINARY - existing only in the imagination.

MULTI-VALUE LOGIC- the area of ​​mathematical logic, in which a finite or infinite number of truth values ​​are accepted. M.L. it is used to solve paradoxes in various fields of knowledge.

LOTS OF - a set, aggregate, collection of any nature of various objects, called elements of M., which have a characteristic property common to all elements; there is always an element with some properties, it belongs to some M .; for all elements of M., a certain property is fulfilled.

Model - an object that is used as a "substitute", a representative of another object (original) for a specific purpose

MODELING - representation of certain properties of the system's behavior by the actions of the VM with the provision of functional correspondence, for example, the VM interpreter simulates the execution of the program of another VM. M. is based on inferences by analogy. M. is carried out with the aim of studying things when it is impossible to study them in natural conditions. M. can be objective, linguistic, physical, logical, mathematical, symbolic, etc.

MODEL - physical system (device, machine, network of machines, etc.), information system (diagram, drawing, sign system, algorithm, etc.) or mathematical description of functions that reflect the essential properties of the studied subject, phenomenon or process; M. is also any image of an object, phenomenon or process. The thing being investigated is called the original, the sample, the prototype.

DATA MODEL - logical data structure with properties independent of hardware and software; M.D. can be represented by diagrams, structures, in some format, and other ways.

Information model

Mathematical model

Full-scale model

Verbal model

MODEL NUMBER - a real-type value exactly represented in the VM memory; all operations are defined in terms of operations on M. h .; the set of properties of M. h. and operations on them are minimal, prescribed for all realizations of real numbers of a given type.

MODULE - a functionally closed structure (for example, a subroutine) that has the properties of blockiness, integrity, syntactic and semantic independence, hiding data, objects and control, having a specification for establishing an interface with other M. and a body for defining actions; formal definition of program M. Usually defined in programming languages.

MODULAR PROGRAMMING- the method of informatics, aimed at the use of methods for representing large and super-large programs from observable, controlled and modifiable parts-modules that meet the requirements of integrity, functional closure, syntactic and semantic certainty, relative independence, interface specificity, independence in design, development and maintenance, hiding their data, objects, operations and control, which are small in size, the only inputs and outputs for control, rejected from the project. M. p. is intended to organize the work of a team of programmers on one project and to ensure the reuse of programs.

MODULARITY - property of a program or technical device represented by modules.

PROGRAM MODULE- a syntactically and semantically defined program unit containing a title (description or specification and body), possibly a description of internal objects, a sequence of statements and redundant sequences of statements to ensure the reliability of the program and designed to hide (abstract from) data, operations and control, reuse this unit, increasing the efficiency and quality of work on the creation of the program, the visibility and protection of the program texts.

BRAIN ATTACK - a method of informatics for the study of objects, phenomena or processes, based on the collective formulation of ideas. Group M.A. works in accordance with a friendly code that excludes any form of criticism and allows the formulation of ideas without justification. Group Code M.A. stimulates group members to quickly generate a large number ideas.

PROGRAM MONITOR- a system program that monitors the execution of programs; M. performs the functions of: collecting representations of information, allocating memory for programs, controlling the time of resource use, determining the order of launching programs, controlling the correctness of program execution, processing interrupts and synchronizing programs.

Information model- description of the original object in one of the information coding languages. Distinguish between figurative, symbolic and mixed information models.

Mathematical model- a model built using mathematical concepts and formulas.

Full-scale model - a real object, in a reduced or enlarged form, reproducing the appearance, structure or behavior of the modeled object.

Verbal model- description of the situation, event, process in natural language.

My computer - system folder, root of the hierarchical file system Microsoft Windows... Always located on the desktop.

Multi-column layout- arrangement of text in several columns.

Modeling - research of objects by building and studying their models

Model - a simplified view of a real object.

Client-server modeldefines the software development process from two parts - server and client, where the protocols of information exchange between them are observed.

Object model - simplified representation of a real object

Modem - a device designed to convert and transfer data between remote computers.

Module - an independent object that can be part of other, more complex objects.

Program module - a set of procedures (objects-instruments) associated with certain rules.

Monitor - a device for outputting video information.

MULTIPROGRAMMING- a programming method that allows the simultaneous execution of two or more independent or data-dependent and control-dependent programs with a dynamic allocation of VM resources.

MULTIPROCESSOR PROCESSING- simultaneous processing of parts or segments of one program under the control of a single operating system.

MULTISYSTEM - a system of several VMs with data exchange or on a common data stream.

RUBBISH - used, distorted or useless information that can be removed from memory by assembling M.

THOUGHT - the result, the product of the thinking process in the form of a judgment, inference or concept that reflects the general in the mass of individual objects, phenomena or processes, fixes the essential, whole, natural in all the diversity of the real world.

THINKING - the highest product of a specially organized matter, an active process of reflection of the objective world in the human brain in the form of judgments, concepts and inferences; spiritual activity of a person is sensation, comprehension, isolation, representation, generalization, formation or reflection. M. is factual, contextual, conceptual, intuitive, logical, procedural, and predictive.

"MOUSE" - a device that fixes a flickering mark (square, dash, rectangle, arrow, or other icon) on the display screen while moving "M." and pressing a key, leaving a graphical path on the screen when using graphics programs. See "COLUMN".

Multimedia product- interactive computer development, which may include music, video clips, animation, picture and slide galleries, various databases, etc.

"Concise Dictionary of Computer
terms for beginners. "

Often, when novice users hear certain words and phrases that more sophisticated computer and Internet users exchange, they cannot understand what it is all about.

Therefore, I suggest that you familiarize yourself with the most frequently used computer expressions in everyday communication.

ID, ID, Ai-di (Identifier)- an identification number. For example, any product in the catalog of an online store. Often, the ID is understood as the user's login on the site (i.e. his name, identifier account required for authorization on the site).

IE, IE – Internet Explorer... Browser (program for viewing sites) built into Windows.

IMHO, IMHO- "In my humble opinion" (English). It can be used wherever the interlocutors express their opinion and make it clear that they respect the opinions of other participants in the discussion: on forums, blogs, articles, etc.

A variation of this abbreviation is IMO when the author does not consider his opinion to be modest.

Lol- "Laughing out loud". Used to indicate the irony or absurdity of a situation.

FAQ- answers to frequently asked questions about something (Frequently Asked Questions, English). Another variation on this acronym is FAQ("FAQ").

Account- the user's personal area on a website, into which he enters, passing authorization (most often by entering a username and password).

Glitch- a single malfunction of the program, website, etc.

Bug- a repeated failure (glitch) in the work of the program, site, etc.

Browser- a program for viewing web pages. The most common browser is Internet Explorer because it is built into the Windows operating system. There are also other browsers that are considered more convenient and reliable: Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Google Chrome ...

Clipboard- an area of ​​memory in the computer where the copied object is temporarily placed (file, text, picture, etc.). When the computer is turned off, the clipboard is cleared, so if the copied content is not pasted into any document and saved to disk, it will be lost from the clipboard.

Windows- Windows operating system.

Domain- to put it simply, this is the address of a website on the Internet, which the user types in the address bar of the browser in order to enter this website. There are different levels, for example, google.com is a second level domain; maps.google.com is a third level domain.

Drivers, "firewood"- small utilities (system modules) that allow the processor to interact with other computer components: video adapter, disk drives, keyboard, printer, etc. The operation of the drivers is not directly visible to the user, but it is thanks to them that all the components of the computer are able to function.

Iron- hardware of a personal computer: processor, hard disk, video adapter and its other components.

Shl- postscript. This abbreviation is often used instead of P.S. to not switch to English and vice versa (Russian letters ЗЫ are on the same keys as the Latin letters PS).

Installation- the process of installing the program on a computer, as well as a group of files required to install the program (in one word, these files are called "distribution kit").

Login- user identifier in the system that requires authorization, i.e., most often, entering a name (login) and password.

Moderator- user on the forum or in social network, which is empowered to monitor compliance with the rules of communication and apply sanctions to those who violate them: delete or correct messages, block violators.

Soap – Email(from the English "Mail").

Offtopic- message not related to the topic.

Conductor- a program for managing files and folders built into Windows.

Topic- topic of discussion (usually on the forum).

Subject- what is included in the subject heading ("Subject").

Screenshot (screenshot)- screenshot of a computer screen. Used to illustrate a particular situation in a computer.

Software- computer software: operating system, user programs, service utilities, etc.

User- a user of a personal computer (from the English "User").

Sooner or later, but almost everyone modern man begins to master the computer. Nowhere without him. And if someone wants to have a normal job with a decent salary, then computer literacy is one of the conditions for this. We don't talk about young people at all, since already from school, most of them are from PC to "you". Where do you start? The answer is simple - to learn computer terms, the basis of all subsequent education.

Submission of information is impossible without special expressions, phrases, phrases, even when explaining to "dummies". And so you need to learn and memorize them on the sly. Here are some common computer terms as an example.

For general development, computer terms of a narrower purpose are presented below.

1. The format of the subscriber digital Internet line, ADSL - data is transmitted up to 1 Mbit / s, received - up to 8 Mbit / s.
2. Advanced Technology Attachment, ATA - this is the designation for a bus for connecting various drives, for example, hard drives.
3. Basic Input / Output System, BIOS - a set of programs for checking the operation of PC hardware at startup.

You should not be afraid of incomprehensible names, in the process of mastering computer terms are gradually remembered, and over time you will no longer get confused in them.

Actually, all this is not a matter of one day, and in order to successfully master this task, you will need: a computer / laptop itself, a self-study guide for working on it and the Internet. Unless, of course, you enroll in specialized courses, but continue to master the computer on your own.

Initially, it is advisable to at least read the tutorial or even part of it, and you can start your device. After downloading, open the Help and Support section and pay attention to it. Fix what you read in practice. So things will go on little by little. Over time, you will notice that you no longer need to look at the prompts every time to perform any action.

As you master the computer, you can purchase more complex literature or a self-study disc, and do not hesitate to ask friends or work colleagues. You can learn the basics without a device, but it gets harder. And remember that theory without practice is quickly forgotten.

In conclusion, I would like to note: despite the fact that most of the computer equipment in our country is still imported, companies that produce Russian computers are gaining momentum. This could be seen at the latest exhibitions in the Expocentre complex, where visitors were shown domestic personal computers, new processors, laptops, and other various electronics that operate on components and software of their own production. All this is intended not only for the military departments and the civilian production industry, but also for business and civilians, that is, for you and me. And, frankly, there is something to see. So master the computer and enjoy all the benefits of civilization!

Hey there, everyone! In this rather lengthy article, we will touch on the highly relevant field of IT and show you the definitions of popular (and not so) computer and technical terms. You were expecting such an article?

In order to look decent when communicating with knowledgeable people on the Internet or "just be in the subject" at a programming get-together, you know better what this is about. With our article on terms, everything mysterious will become clear and understandable!

Since the second half of the 20th century, the rapid growth of computer technology, and the massive introduction of personal computers and computer devices into human life in the mid-80s, have introduced a huge number of special words and expressions into the Russian language. Thanks to the start of publication in 1988 of the magazine "PC World", which became very popular, there was a "collapse": English terms and abbreviations, often in English, filled the pages of magazines and "littered" the speech of specialists.

Today these words are used by people in highly paid positions, and many terms are used among people not involved in the field of information technology. Who knows how your life will turn out in the future? Know them too!

Are you ready for some serious longread? Then let "s get to it!

Top 5 IT terms from EnglishDom

User-centered design (user-centered design)

It is a term used to discuss processes that take into account user characteristics, habits or preferences in product design. When people develop a product according to the needs of the user, instead of forcing the user to adapt to the design.

Some of the confusion around user-centered design stems from perhaps the more popular term user experience (UX). The term has become quite popular in the IT field when talking about how a user can improve tested software or other products.

Many people think that user-centric design and user interface are interchangeable terms. Others point out that the former is more of a conceptual blueprint, and the UI (enhanced or customizable) is the outcome. However, IT professionals still use “user interface” as a process term, which can create confusion.

User-centered design can be applied to any product, but in the IT space, a lot of attention is paid to intuitive graphical user interfaces and other tools that are user friendly for end users.

Blockchain(blockchain)

A digital way of storing information, allowing different people to always know what exactly is stored, when, who and what information has changed, moved or added.

The term blockchain has become on everyone's lips in connection with the advent of cryptocurrencies (digital or virtual currency designed to work as a medium of exchange using cryptography to secure transactions), a new type of money, the earnings and movement of which are organized exactly on the blockchain principle.

We can say that the information stored using blockchain technology is something like a watchman's log, which can neither be stolen, nor burned, nor hidden, nor spoiled. And even more so, nothing can be wiped secretly in it, as well as change any information bypassing the magazine.

The word "blockchain" literally means "blockchain". Any change in information in the blockchain will lead to the creation of a new block.(or entries in the watchman's log), which tightly "clings" to the previous links. And every link after creation is already impossible to change.

Information systems of all kinds can exist in the form of a blockchain. If this is, for example, the register of real estate, then in it, without any restrictions, it will be possible to find out the history of ownership of any object included in the register. In this case, nothing can be done retroactively, and any attempts to change the records will be transparent to everyone.

An important property of information stored on the blockchain principle is that it is not stored somewhere in one particular place, but in fragments or completely placed on computers of a large number of people, being duplicated many times. That is, information in the blockchain cannot be taken and deleted: one, ten or a hundred disabled computers with blockchain fragments will not affect the availability of information. If manuscripts do not burn anywhere, it is in the blockchain.

Folksonomy (folksonomy)

Object classification type. It's kind of like a manual sorting of information that a group of people are doing together. As a rule, we are talking about classifying something on the Internet - it is more convenient there. For example: lovers of children's literature create, say, a collection of children's e-books on the web. Then they mark the books they know with some kind of labels (tags). Each one of his own.

More often, a set of tags is negotiated in advance, and you cannot go beyond it. For example, in our case, it can be labels: “for children”, “classic”, “no pictures”, “boring”, “bad translation”, “Agnia Barto”, “poetry”, “not readable”, “adventure " etc.

A popular site that uses folksonomy is the photo hosting "Flickr". Here users upload their photos by tagging them. Each photo can be tagged by anyone who registers on the site.

Sooner or later, if the community is active, almost every book will receive several of the same tags from different people. This means that several people find this book satisfying these very tags. All members of the community can focus on them, choosing something for their offspring.

Artificial neural network (ANN)

This is an artificial analogue of a biological neural network, which allows you to automate the solution of many tasks. It is with artificial neural networks that most of the achievements of artificial intelligence are today associated.

The first simplest artificial neural network appeared in 1960. A century later, will the progress of such networks lead to the emergence of merciless terminators? This is known only to John Connor.

In fact, an artificial neural network is a special type of computer program, and such a program works, respectively, on one or several computers.

The most interesting property of an artificial neural network is its learnability... If the task of the program is to distinguish women from men in photographs, then through the artificial neural network it is necessary to "pass" as many different images as possible, suggesting the correct answer.

In the process of such "training" within the neural network, more and more accurate algorithms for determining the sex of a person from his image are formed - this happens in a semi-automatic mode, the network learns from its mistakes.

Autoencoder (autoencoder, AE)

It is a special type of unsupervised artificial neural network that provides compression and other functions in the field of machine learning.

The simplest autoencoder architecture is a feedforward network, without feedbacks containing an input layer, an intermediate layer, and an output layer. The basic principle of operation and training of the autoencoder network is to get the response on the output layer that is closest to the input.

Technical terms

• API- application programming interface. In simple terms: the connectors on the back of the TV.

When a third-party device (such as a DVD player or game console) is connected to the TV, they both know exactly what to do next. And all thanks to the connectors - the interface, that is, the means of pairing devices.

• Access Control List - access control list. Or "party list".

The owner is not interested in invitations taken with him. He hangs a list on the door and personally checks who is allowed to enter. No matter how much you would like to get inside, you will not be able to persuade him (and use someone else's invitation too).

In complicated words: the part of the security descriptor that lists who has access to an object and which one. The owner of an object can change the ACL of this object, allowing or denying access to other users. An ACL consists of a header and an arbitrary number of ACL elements (ACE). An ACL without ACL is called a null ACL and indicates that no user is allowed access to the object.

• Adblock- a program that blocks ad modules, ad blocking. Or "damage to outdoor advertising."

The indignation at the cluttering of public places is understandable, isn't it? But, if advertising is privately owned, then it will not be long and under the article to please.

• Agile Software Development- Agile software development (focused on ease of making changes) or rapid software development (adaptive development).

It's like completing a ship on a voyage. That is, it is already possible to stay on the water: there is a hull, or even a mast. And the ship is not completed, but immediately lowered from the stocks and brought to mind already on the voyage. So it immediately becomes clear what is most important and what you need to focus on.

• Back end- server application (part) or software to perform the final stage of the process.

It's like an underground part of a city. Above everything is common: HTML buildings, CSS cathedrals, Javascript office blocks. And underground is what keeps the city running: an intricate network of web servers, applications, and databases. Software for solving a problem that is not obvious to the user.

• Backdoor- loophole. That is, a tool (path) to bypass the protection system. Or just a backdoor.

This is when, for example, a builder made a duplicate key to your door. Even the most secure locks will not prevent him from entering. Or maybe give the key to someone else.

• Bandwidth - bandwidth, frequency range; bandwidth (for example, communication channel).

For example, the rear channel of Dolby Surround has a frequency range of 100 Hz to 7 kHz. This channel passes frequencies from 1-10 Hz (low frequencies) to 7 kHz (low high frequencies).

The human hearing frequency range is between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. The limits of the frequency range of electronic or acoustic devices are the frequencies at which the transmission coefficient decreases by 3 dB.

Imagine a water supply pipe through which water is diluted to a shower, dishwasher and washing machine... Turn on all three at the same time - and the head will immediately drop. And a couple of strong words will come from the shower.

• Big Data- big data. A series of approaches, tools and methods for processing and analyzing structured, semi-structured and unstructured data of huge volumes and significant diversity to obtain useful in practice, human-readable results.

Mapping unfamiliar terrain. It's hard to understand what's what when you wade through the bushes or wander through the gorges. But armed with the right tool (balloon), you can see the entire landscape at once and analyze individual elements such as the shape of a mountain range or a winding river bed.

• Bug- a bug in the program.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa, which for the first five years stood upright as it should be, and then began to slope. Why? A design error has occurred! Quicksand turned out to be under the three-meter foundation. It's a pity that on software bugs tourists are not caught.

• Cookie- a cookie that is used by web servers to distinguish users and store data about them.

It's like a barista with a good memory. You come in early in the morning for a double decaffeinated soy latte with cream, and he nods, bored, "As usual?"

• DDoS Attack- distributed network denial of service attack.

When 200 people dial one number. A regular network attack (DoS attack) is a kind of constantly calling type. It is annoying, interferes with using the phone, but one person can be tracked down and stopped.

But if an anonymous person places an advertisement in the newspaper “Bugatti Chiron for $ 200” with your number, this is a distributed attack. In this case, a flurry of calls falls on you, and your life turns into hell. The callers do not even suspect that they are being used, and it is almost impossible to track down the organizer.

• Dark web- the dark Internet - a segment of the World Wide Web, which can be accessed only with the help of special software, while maintaining complete anonymity there, in order to make the sale and purchase of illegal goods (for example, weapons or drugs) and services, secret information exchange.

Actually, the other side of the moon. Everyone sees the bright side (the regular Internet) - just use the search. To access the dark side, you need special (dark) software (rocket).

• Data bleed- data leak. The term is gradually gaining popularity, but it is still difficult to clearly define it as there is no exact definition on the Internet yet.

In general, data leakage occurs when there is no transparency in the use of data, or when data transmission occurs without the express permission of the user.

• De-identification- de-identification, deletion of personal data (identification information) .

With phrases like “a high-ranking official” and “a source close to the president”, journalists often de-identify their sources.

There is useful information in their words (after all, the credibility of the report depends on where the information comes from), but the specific person will remain unknown. If, of course, you choose your words carefully.

• Doxing- doxing, collection and distribution of disclosure, disclosure, publication of someone's personal data on the Internet without the consent of that person.

Lynching as a way to take justice into your own hands in order to punish the offender. But lynching sometimes goes sideways if the wrong person becomes the victim or the consequences go too far.

• Encryption- encryption, classification. The tradition is to wear clothes.

It would never occur to anyone to accuse a dressed person of hiding something (you can try, but they are unlikely to understand). Everyone knows that this is how it is accepted in a civilized society.

The same applies to encryption of various basic transactions on the Internet - from banking and commerce to the transmission of personal information.

Without strong encryption, the Internet is incapacitated. The question is how to combine encryption strength requirements with national security and law enforcement issues - see Backdoor.

• Front End - front-end part of a client-server application (client component).

It's like walking through the city. The interface is available to us: sidewalks, roads, shops, parks, business districts. But the server part, which is responsible for the life support of the city, remains hidden from view: power supply lines, gas pipelines, sewerage systems, building foundations are underground.

• Least Mean Square (LMS) — minimum mean square error algorithm.

It is a type of filter used in machine processes that uses stochastic gradient descent in complex ways — professionals describe it as an adaptive filter that helps perform signal processing in a variety of ways.

• OAuth- OAuth authorization protocol.

It's like a gardener hired for a second home in Spain. In the absence of the owners, a reliable housekeeper with the keys looks after the house. Therefore, the gardener is not given the key: the housekeeper will let him in herself and show him where the barn is. Now, by the next visit, both the house and the garden will be well-groomed - life is beautiful.

• Open source- open source.

The principle is that the source code of the system being developed should be freely and free of charge provided to everyone who wants to improve it. The resulting improvements should also be available to everyone free of charge. Like a cake baked for a friend with a recipe for him.

The cake is a program (only tastier), and the recipe being passed on is open source. A friend will not only pamper himself with delicious, but will be able to prepare another cake by himself: for himself or for a friend at birth. It is possible, of course, that he will take peanut butter instead of butter (this is so original).

• Spam- spam, "garbage" message.

An endless number of monkeys trapped in a room with an endless number of typewriters and ultimately giving out Shakespeare's writings.

To increase the chances of success, more and more spam is being sent. Millions filter it, delete it, ignore it, but one answer is enough to make the game worth the candle.

• Spoofing- spoofing fraud (fraud aimed at obtaining banking confidential customer data in order to steal money, as a rule, using computer technology, by imitating a real banking site or placing it on a fake site. Accordingly, information from the client goes to a fake site.

In simple words: simulated connection. Someone disguised as a police officer to get confidential information, The IP address is masqueraded as a trusted host during spoofing. In fact, everything is not so, which is fraught with problems.

• Spyware- spyware. Spyware designed to track user actions on a computer. Intercepts his mail correspondence, information entered by him, passwords and commands. Like hidden microphones.

Once installed, spyware monitors every keystroke, logging passwords, bank details, and the translation of the poem you're pounding on.

• TOR (The Onion Router) - free software for the implementation of the second generation of the so-called "onion or multilayer routing".

It is a system that allows you to establish an anonymous network connection, protected from eavesdropping. Considered as an anonymous network that provides encrypted data transmission. Like Ray-Ban Wayfarer glasses for the browser. No one sees what exactly their owner is considering. They look stylish and mysterious.

• Trojan- Trojan horse. Poison bowl. For the first time, the motive of the poisoned cup appears in Shakespeare's Macbeth - a gift that seems flattering, but in the end turns out to be destructive. Act 1, Scene 7.
• Troll- troll, provocateur (on forums or chats); the troll is the author of provocative and provocative messages. Chess game with a dove.

No matter how you play chess, he will scatter all the pieces, shit on the board and fly away to tell how he beat everyone.

• Virus- a virus. Venereal disease. Sorry for such a comparison, but viruses pick up when a computer comes into close proximity to the Internet without using protection.
• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)- secure access via Wi-Fi. The President's motorcycle escort is a bulletproof vehicle accompanied by motorcyclists. Delivers protected from the device to the Internet connection. But upon arrival, additional security will not interfere.
• White Hat- white hacker, fanatic programmer or ethical hacker. Positive character. It is a computer security specialist who specializes in testing the security of computer systems.

Unlike black hackers (or hats), whites look for vulnerabilities on a voluntary basis or for a fee in order to help developers make their product more secure.

The term originates in old westerns (black hat - villain, villain, black hacker), where the right heroes and villains adhered to a comfortable monochrome dress code.

• Wiki- A wiki is a hypertext environment (usually a website) for collecting and structuring written information. May have multiple authors. Some wikis can be edited by all visitors. Like a hotel guestbook.

• Zero-day- zero-day vulnerability - malware(exploits) against which defense mechanisms have not yet been developed.

"The naked king" in chess. There is nothing left but to start building a defense in the hope that the opponent did not notice anything. Although it is possible that he has been in the know for a long time and is just having fun during the last five moves. Checkmate.

Computer terms

• AJAX Is an approach to building interactive web pages in which the browser communicates with the web server in the background.

Thus, the current page is not completely reloaded, only the changed objects are updated. The result is greater usability and speed of web applications.

• ADSL- an asymmetric digital subscriber line is new technology, which allows using existing subscriber telephone lines for high-speed data transmission and reception between computers of subscribers.

Asymmetric is called because the speed of data reception by the subscriber is several times higher than the speed of the data transmitted by him.

• Active Directory Is an implementation of the Microsoft directory service for Windows that allows administrators to enforce sets of rules that ensure consistent user experience settings, deploy software to a huge number of computers, install updates on all computers on the network, and so on.

Active Directory stores data and environment settings in a centralized database and its network can reach millions of objects.

• CSS(Cascading Style Sheets) - cascading style sheets, a separate code that enhances the design and formatting of a web page.

The "СSS" properties are in addition to the main HTML markup. The specified rule can apply to individual elements of the page, the entire document and the entire site.

• DNS(Domain Name System) is a system (database) capable of a query containing Domain name host (computer or other network device), report the IP address.

To put it simply, each computer on the network has its own unique address - a series of numbers (up to 12). If you want to write a letter - dial the number of the mail server and go ahead. But, you see, remembering the name "mail.ru" is easier than, for example, 164.295.790.024.

Dial "mail.ru", your computer will knock on the "DNS" server, and to the question "How to get to mail.ru?" will receive an exact digital address. Connect to the address (of course, without your participation), and you are there. An ordinary address table comes out. Only people do not use it, but their computers.

• Doctype- document type - "DTD" (document type definition, document type description).

This is necessary for the browser to understand how to interpret the current web page, because "HTML" exists in several versions, in addition, there is XHTML ("Extensible Hypertext Markup Language", which is similar to "HTML", but different from him in syntax.

So that the browser does not "get confused" and understands according to which standard to display the web page and it is necessary to set in the first line of code .

• Delphi Is an object-oriented programming environment based on the Object Pascal language.

Used for software development and support. Unlike its progenitor, the Pascal language, it is multifunctional and convenient in that it has a visual application editor that allows you to create the appearance of a future program.

• DMZ Is a technology that ensures the security of a computer network. Its essence is that the servers that work with requests from the external network are located in the "demilitarized zone" - "DMZ".

These servers are limited in access to the main network firewall, while working with an external network is not directly possible

• EDGE Is an "advanced GPRS" data transfer protocol used in GSM networks cellular operators; the technology makes it possible to access the Internet at speeds up to 3-4 times higher than when using "GPRS", and transfer data from a mobile phone at an average speed of about 236 kbps.

"EDGE", like "GPRS", allows the subscriber to pay only for the amount of received / sent information, the technology also allows you to make and receive calls during data transmission, always staying in touch; to use EDGE, you need a mobile phone that supports this technology.

• ERP-system(Enterprise Resource Planning System) is an information system that is designed to automate enterprise accounting and management.

Usually ERP-systems are developed on the basis of a module and cover the entire set of key processes of the company. Their use allows several disparate programs to be replaced by one integrated one.

• Excel Is a program that is part of the Windows Office suite of programs, one of the most popular among users.

It is a spreadsheet used for maintaining small databases; calculations; assembling, sorting and linking information; building charts and graphs.

The program is easy to use, for more experienced users the possibilities of using complex formulas, analysis, and programming open up.

• FTP Is, translated from English, a file transfer protocol. It is one of the basic protocols for exchanging information.

The fundamental difference between the FTP protocol and HTTP is that FTP is designed to transfer files of arbitrary size.

Transferring files from the server's file system to the client's file system and vice versa is carried out using a special program - FTP-client.

• Flash Is an invention for creating interactive content in web animation technology from the Macromedia company. It is used to create interactive website elements, web games, as well as to create banners and animation intros.

Flash files are compact but time consuming to create. Only experienced flash programmers can do it. You need a flash player to view flash files.

• Firefox Is the world's first open source browser. The Fire Fox has a high level of security.

• Firewall Is a software package designed to protect your computer from unauthorized access.

The functions of the "wall of fire" include control and separation of network packets passing through it with the elimination of suspicious and dangerous ones, in accordance with the specified rules. Sometimes similar functions are assigned to hardware protection.

• Firewire Is a high-speed serial bus that allows a computer to exchange data at high speeds with various peripheral devices.

In particular, it is used when capturing video and audio streams from digital video cameras.

Allows you to connect the aforementioned devices without turning off the power supply of the latter (the so-called "hot plug").

• FreeBSD Is a UNIX-like operating system, a descendant of UNIX, distributed in source codes. FreeBSD is one of the best operating systems for building Internet and intranet servers.

FreeBSD features reliable networking services, efficient memory management, and stability. Compared to other operating systems, FreeBSD servers have the longest uptime.

• FAQ(Frequently Asked Questions) - answers to popular questions.

"FAQ" is a section in help, help for programs, or online services, containing typical user questions and answers. If the program or service is simple enough or completely new, then the "FAQ" can completely replace the help.

• Gps- this is global system navigation and positioning, used in Europe and America.

The basic idea is that the location is determined in relation to several satellites, the orbits of which, and hence the exact location, are known.

Each satellite of the "GPS" system transmits certain signals, the decoding of which is carried out in the receiving device.

• Host Is a powerful server (communication center) for hosting sites on the World Wide Web, which is used to transfer any files or e-mail messages.

Host computer is a server installed in Internet nodes that solves all issues related to communication and access to various network resources: modems, other computers.

• HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol) Is a data transfer protocol on the Internet. Hypertext Transfer Protocol.

There are clients that send requests to the server, and the server that processes the incoming requests responds to them. Today "http" is one of the most widely used Internet protocols.

• HDMI(High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a high-definition multimedia interface designed to transmit high-definition signal to a video device, i.e. TV, monitor, projector, etc.

The sound is connected via 5.1 or 7.1 channels. The HDMI connector allows you to connect multiple devices using the appropriate cables.

• DPI- (Dot Per Inch - dots per inch). Determines the resolution of the image, the number of dots (pixels). The higher the number of dots, the better the picture quality.

Most often, values ​​from 300 to 1440 are used for various types of images.

• Cluster- this is the union into a system of homogeneous units. Wherein this system can be considered an independent element with certain properties.

The concept of a cluster is included in many areas of science - chemistry, physics, sociology, astronomy, etc. In computer science, there are the concepts of a cluster as a unit of information storage, a cluster of computers, a server cluster and a database cluster.

• Screenshot- using the "Print Screen" key you can take a "snapshot" of what is on this moment on your computer screen. Further, having opened a graphic editor, you can insert a “snapshot” there and save it as a picture.
• Usability- ease of use of something. Assessment of the interface, service, control buttons, navigation from the point of view of human comfort. For example, our portal was created according to the principles of usability - we try to make it easy and convenient for you to navigate here.
• Pathname- full file name or full path to an item (it is a link to an item in the package, the name of which is specified by the path prefix).

Conclusion

You may already be familiar with many of these terms, or you may have used some incorrectly. Or maybe you even discovered the whole world for yourself? Be that as it may, now you are aware and can safely go to hacker parties, try to get a job in a good IT company and amaze everyone with your knowledge!

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