The structural characteristics of the information are determined by the aspect. Information aspects of management

Today we continue the conversation about aspects and functions, which we opened a week ago taabat .
I will start with a short introduction to combine the already known material and the concepts that I propose to get acquainted with in this post.

Socionics studies information metabolism, or methods of information processing in the psyche (hence the word "TIM", which is usually written in lowercase letters - "tim" is an abbreviation for "type of information metabolism").

In biology, the term "metabolism" means metabolism, their assimilation and processing; principle information metabolism was formulated by the Polish psychologist and psychiatrist A. Kempinski.

So, informational metabolism in socionics means methods of information processing in the human psyche and the peculiarities of information exchange between people.
The way in which a person processes information is described using various models socionic types (there are several such models; among them, model A is deservedly very popular - due to the convenience and completeness of the type description);
how people exchange information, what in this exchange helps mutual understanding and what can hinder it, is discussed in a fairly voluminous section on intertype relationships(this section includes interactions between types, the concept of a socion consisting of quadras; other small groups are also considered).

Information flow described by four concepts: matter, energy, space, time.
They correspond to four informational macro-aspects: logic, ethics, sensing, intuition.
These four aspects, taking into account introversion and extraversion, give 8 information aspects(acquaintance with which took place).
In diagrams where aspects are displayed as icons, the introversion of the aspect is indicated in white, the extroversion in black.

Matter:
Black Logic (CL) - business logic - work, technology, fact, expediency
White Logic (BL) - structural logic - system, law, order, structure

Energy:
Black Ethics (CHE) - ethics of emotions - emotions, mood, emotional states
White Ethics (BE) - ethics of relationships - relationships, humanism, morality, ethical feelings and norms

Space:
Black Sensing (CHS) - volitional sensing - will, power, force, action, pressure, territory, form
White Sensory (BS) - sensory sensation - comfort, well-being, health, convenience, harmony of space

Time:
Black Intuition (CHI) - intuition of possibilities - opportunity, search, potential, ability
White Intuition (BI) - intuition of time - sense of time, integrity, forecast, state, poetry

Introversion and extraversion are not signs of sociability, contact, social activity; they mean that attention in the aspect can be characterized as introverted (with a focus on the inner space, on its relation to the outside; motivation comes from the inside) or as extraverted (focus of attention on the external world, its objects, situations, while the internal is secondary; the activity is motivated outside).
That is, introversion and extroversion are, respectively, more perceiving, mastering the existing or more expansive, mastering the new character of the aspect.

Irrationality and rationality is determined by the aspect type:
logic and ethics give rationality,
sensing and intuition - irrationality.

So, the information flow is divided into 8 information aspects.
To find out what all this has to do with the operation and characteristics of types, let's move on to the topic of functions.

Aspects(or blocks of information of a certain content) are perceived and processed by the system functions.
Function is a tool of the psyche that perceives, processes and produces information of one or another informational aspect.
There are 8 informational aspects, and 8 functions (by the number of aspects).
Incoming information_aspect in the psyche gets to the receiver - information_metabolism_function.

The distribution of aspects by function depends on the type.
Any of the types perceives, processes and reproduces all 8 aspects- but with varying degrees of quality and completeness of processing: this happens because the functions have different capabilities, are not the same in sensitivity and ability to process information.
Aspects are categorized by function individually for each of the 16 types. This distribution can be considered using Model A, which displays the work of the full set of functions; Therefore, it is so convenient for studying the processes of informational metabolism of one type or another, and for clarifying the peculiarities of the interaction of types with each other.
This model can be described as a structural diagram, where each function has its own role, its interconnections and its _possibilities_ ("degrees of freedom") - to what extent it can process the incoming information corresponding to it.

A separate post should be devoted to Model A, but now let's get acquainted with a list of functions, their capabilities:

1st function- software, intelligence function, basic, expert
The semantic function that determines the mental type and its basic, essential tasks.
A person receives the most complete information about the world thanks to this function; in her, he is confident as in something fundamental, since he perceives the world through her prism. This is his world, in which he orientates himself, in the language of which he thinks, perceives and describes reality.
2nd function- creative, implementation, productive
It actively contributes to the implementation of the 1st (program) function, makes a pair with it, therefore the 2nd (creative) function is also called the function of the program implementation. Determines the creative potential of a person, from it he gives out a “product” in the most natural way for his type, is always ready to provide it; being in demand is important to him, so as not to “stand by” idle. Active and resourceful function.
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1-2 functions - the most powerful and actively used block, characterized by confidence in their knowledge and actions; the level of the greatest awareness in the perception of information and meaningfulness in its processing. Strong functions are so natural in their work that a person can assume them as basic for “all-normal-people” (if proceeding from the principle “normal is when like me”), or at least for many people. These functions determine the values of the type and they are reflected in its name.

3rd function- role-playing, normative, adaptive, trainee
A person is interested in information on this function, tries to develop it. He strives to play it as a kind of role, and as best as possible, because it believes that society evaluates people according to criteria and features that correspond to the aspect that has fallen into this function.
4th function- painful, mobilization, KNS (channel of least resistance), experience function
The location of the problem: this is the weakest of the functions of the upper part of model A; a person tries to avoid situations related to the information corresponding to this function, and his own manifestations on it require a lot of stress and often, despite the efforts made, are inadequate.
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3-4 functions - a block of uncertainty, many doubts and experiences are associated with it (since the functions of this block are included in the perceived part of model A). In terms of these functions, it is in no way possible to be harmonious and natural, but I really want to succeed in this and make up for my shortcomings and imperfections.

In Model A, functions 1 through 4 form a Mental Ring - a person uses them consciously.
Functions 5 to 8 form the Vital Ring - the tasks of these functions are performed "automatically", practically do not require the participation of consciousness.
Aspects located on the functions of the Vital Ring "mirror" the types of aspects processed by the functions of the Mental Ring, but are opposite to them on the basis of introversion / extraversion: the 1st (basic) is associated with the 7th (observational), the 2nd (creative) is associated with the 8th (demonstrative), the 3rd (normative) is associated with the 5th (suggestive), the 4th (painful) is associated with the 6th (activation):

1 - 2
4 - 3
6 - 5
7 - 8

5th function- suggestive, suggestible
Here a request for information arises, waiting for help, and if actions, advice, recommendations come in response from the outside, this has a calming effect on a person. Information on this function is received uncritically.
6th function- activation, reference
Information on this function gives strength, activates, prompts to action.
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5-6 functions - a block of needs for support, help, care; but these needs are difficult to satisfy because they are already part of the group of unconscious or very poorly realized functions (lower half of model A, vital ring).

7th function- ignoring, observant, controlling, restrictive
It turns on automatically in response to the excess of information on its aspect, to a threat or pressure; according to this function, a person evaluates the actions of others in terms of errors, evaluates, controls and limits.
8th function- background, demo, instrumental
Acts confidently, demonstrates competence in the background, without wasting words or explaining his actions.
-
7-8 functions - a block of confident actions, however, performed automatically (in contrast to the first two functions) - because the lower half of model A is practically not realized.

The topic of functions clarifies the position of socionics that a person, in interaction with the flow of information, most easily processes and produces that part of it (in terms of socionics - an aspect, or aspects), for interaction with which you can use strengths their perception and thinking (strong type functions); and there is a piece of information (other aspects) that is perceived with difficulty and is not fully used (as much as possible for other types - since the functions that handle these information_aspects are not so strong).
In the above list strength of functions decreases from 1st to 4th function and again increases from 5th to 8th.

To denote the strength of functions, the concept is used dimensions(or dimensions) of functions.
Multidimensional functions are strong (1st, 2nd, 7th and 8th), low-dimensional - weak (3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th).
The one-dimensional function (4 and 5) when processing information comes only from personal experience.
The two-dimensional (3 and 6) function operates with both personal experience and norms.
The three-dimensional function (2 and 7) uses experience, norms, and is able to take into account the requirements of a particular situation.
The four-dimensionality of the function (1 and 8) gives it - in addition to experience, norms and specifics - also a global view, a deep understanding of the type of information it processes, the ability to embed it in a wider context, to act as if it were her element and she lives in it ; often the consciousness of this function is described as cosmic, implying the breadth of coverage of the corresponding type of information.

By defining and trying on your team yourself, you can analyze your relationship with the information flow in different situations and track the distribution of your attention in it; and here the name of the type should not confuse us, because if we look from the point of view of socionics, then the type of information that a person will be affected by, which he will pay attention to, which he will be inclined to speak about, will not necessarily correspond to the information of his strong functions :

The 1st function is basic, the strongest, it reads information from reality to the fullest extent - but a person usually little or almost does not spread about it, or mentions it in passing, because for him it is natural and difficult to verbalize - he is too lazy to translate it into words (“yes what is there to talk about, and so everything is clear ”);
2nd function - creative, implementation channel - serves to implement the 1st function; she is active, productive and most willingly manifests herself and enters into feedback with the world.

the other two functions - normative (3rd in model A) and painful (4th in model A) - are weak:
information on the third, normative function is associated with uncertainty (this is weakness), is consumed from the outside as a reference point - that is, a person pays attention to this information and highlights it as important for himself in order to fit into society (norms and rules "as is act "," how people do "), looks for clues on it, is able to mark it as attracting attention, demonstrates his skills on it, because he believes that it is important for social adaptation, that society accepts or rejects people according to their skills in the sphere of the information aspect that got into the type on the 3rd function; the difference from the 2nd creative function is insufficient confidence in the sphere of the 3rd function, which a person hides while working in public, and the inability to use it for a long time.
information on the 4th, painful function (another name is the "channel of least resistance") can be responded either in an emphasized restrained form, or compensatory-"exponentially"; she does not pass by the consciousness, it is just very difficult for a person to work with her and to talk about her unnecessarily, he avoids to the last; normally it is a silent function, because of which it can be confused with the not too talkative 1st (!) - however, overloading this function causes inadequate manifestations, or creates an explosive, conflict situation, or even avoiding the source that provokes the overload - these are excessive reactions that the 1st function will not give as a place of confidence.

Raster editor. Computing network. Network topology. The current drive. Command. Information system. Video memory. Basic hardware configuration. Programming interface. Protocol. Service software... Graphics editor. Data protection. Driver. File Allocation Table. Vector editor. Mouse. Relational database. Monitor. Translator. Control device. Hardware and software interface.

"Concept of Economic Informatics" - Cumulative Costs. The method of economic informatics. Share of IT expenses. Basic economic models. The subject of studying economic informatics. Economic informatics and information technology. Disappointment with IT implementation. Share. Information processes. Share in the education of economists. Place of IT business.

"Science informatics" - Basic concepts and definitions of informatics. Computer system interfaces. Cybernetics. The subject and tasks of informatics. Discipline "Informatics". Properties of information. The dynamic nature of information. Reliability of information. Engineering Science. The origins and prerequisites of informatics. Automation. Informatics tasks. Rating system. Availability of information. Interface. Sourse of information. Information about the surrounding world.

"Economic Informatics" - System. Properties of data, information and knowledge. Computer science. Syntactic measure of information. The structure of analytical information. IC functioning scheme. Economic information as a strategic resource. The main components of the IS. The structure of economic informatics. The emergence of computers. The method of economic informatics. Data, information and knowledge, measurement and application. Measures of information. Economic informatics and information systems.

"Work program in economic informatics" - A set of profile courses. Information and information processes. Portfolio. Diagnostic research. Creative project. Composition. Questionnaire research. Formation of a rational consumer budget for the family. Algorithmization and programming. Algorithmization basics. Control system. Educational and methodical kit. Current diagnostics. Winner of competition. Categorical apparatus. Form of certification.

"Entertaining Informatics" - Block diagrams of proverbs. Cuckoo. Miser pays twice. Measure seven times. Winchester. Solve puzzles. Window. Strike while the iron is hot. Solve the crossword puzzle. An hour of entertaining computer science. PC elements. A business. The name of the information process. Types of information. Insufficient salting. Try to read it. Specified location. Everyone is looking for terms. The clever will not go uphill. Proverbs with computer stuffing. Recognize the proverb. After the rain.

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Introduction
2.1 Types of information
2.4 Data operations
Conclusion
Applications

Introduction

The term "information" comes from the Latin word "Informatio" - explanation, presentation, awareness. We can assume that this term in the initial representation is general concept, meaning some information, a set of data, knowledge, etc. The concept of information must be with a specific object, the properties of which it reflects. In addition, there is a relative independence of information from its carrier, since it can be transformed and transmitted through various physical media using a variety of physical signals regardless of its content, i.e. to semantics, which was the central issue of many studies, including in philosophical science. Information about any material object can be obtained by observation, natural or computational experiment, as well as on the basis of logical inference.

Therefore, they speak of pre-experimental (or a priori) information and post-experimental (i.e., a posteriori) information obtained as a result of the experiment.

For a person, any perception of real objects of the surrounding reality occurs through sensations. Human senses and the higher nervous system allow him to perceive objects. When exchanging information, there is a source in the form of an object of the material world and a receiver - a person or some kind of material object. Information arises due to reflection, which is a property of all matter, any material system. The property of reflection improves as matter develops from elementary reflection to its highest form - consciousness. The process of reflection means the interaction of objects in the material world. This process is most simple in inorganic nature. Mechanical, chemical and physical interactions prevail here. With this reflection, objects are passive. New forms of reflection (physiological and psychological) arise in organic nature. In a living organism, on the basis of reflection, the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions is formed. A person develops more complex forms of reflection: cognitive and creative. These forms are of a conscious nature and allow a person to actively influence the world around him.

1. The concept of information and its aspects

In a philosophical sense, information is a reflection of the real world. This is information that one real object contains about another real object. Thus, the concept of information is associated with a specific object, the properties of which it reflects.

In informatics, information is understood as a message that reduces the degree of uncertainty in knowledge about the state of objects or phenomena and helps to solve the problem.

A change in some physical quantity over time, which ensures the transmission of messages, is called a signal.

We live in a material world consisting of physical bodies and physical fields. Physical objects are in a state of continuous movement and change, which are accompanied by the exchange of energy and its transition from one form to another. For the exchange of information, its transformation and transmission to take place in the material world, there must be a carrier of information, a transmitter, a communication channel, a receiver and a recipient of information. A communication channel is a medium in which information is transmitted. The communication channel unites the source and the recipient of information into a single information system (Fig. 1.1).

Such information systems exist both in technical systems and in human society and wildlife. Information systems can be divided into natural and artificial. The first includes all naturally occurring systems. These systems are biological organisms. Man-made information systems are artificial information systems.

Figure 1.1 Information system.

The registered signals are called data. Some language is required to register them for storage and transmission. This language should be understood by both the sender of the information and its recipient. Data can carry information about events taking place in the material world. However, data is not the same as information. To obtain information, you need a method of data processing. Information is a product of the interaction of data and the methods of their processing adequate to them.

Information exists only at the time of interaction between data and methods. The rest of the time, it is contained in the form of data. Thus, firstly, there is no information in itself as some independent entity without its carrier in the form of some material processes, and secondly, there is no information regardless of the subject capable of extracting it from the received message. Different recipients can extract different information from the same data, depending on the adequacy of their processing methods.

The data are objective, since it is the result of registration of objectively existing signals caused by changes in material bodies and fields. At the same time, the methods are subjective, since they are based on algorithms compiled by people.

The recipient of the information evaluates it depending on the task for which it will be used. When evaluating information, one distinguishes between its syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects.

The transmitted message must be presented as a sequence of characters of some alphabet. The syntactic aspect concerns the formal correctness of the message from the point of view of the syntactic rules of the language used, regardless of its content.

The semantic aspect conveys the semantic content of information and correlates it with previously available information. Knowledge about a certain subject area is recorded in the form of a thesaurus, that is, a set of concepts and connections between them. Upon receipt of information, the thesaurus may change. The degree of this change characterizes the perceived amount of information. The semantic aspect determines the possibility of achieving the set goal, taking into account the information received, i.e. determines the value of information.

The amount of information contained in a message can be estimated by the degree of change in the recipient's individual thesaurus under the influence of of this message... In other words, the amount of information extracted by the recipient from incoming messages depends on the degree of preparation of his thesaurus for the perception of such information. If the individual thesaurus of the recipient of the message does not intersect with the thesaurus of the sender, then the recipient does not understand the message and for him the amount of received information is equal to zero. This situation is similar to listening to a message in an unknown language. Undoubtedly, the message is not devoid of meaning, but it is incomprehensible, and therefore not informative. If the thesauri of the sender and the recipient coincide, then the amount of information in the message will also be equal to zero, since its recipient knows absolutely everything about the subject. In this case, the message does not give him anything new. A message carries information for the recipient only when their thesauri partially overlap.

A person first observes some facts that are displayed as a dataset. This is where the syntactic aspect comes into play. Then, after structuring this data, knowledge about the observed facts is formed, which is recorded in a certain language. This is the semantic aspect of information. The acquired knowledge and the information models created on its basis are used by a person in his practice to achieve his goals.

In real life, a situation often arises when even the availability of complete information does not allow solving the task. The pragmatic aspect of information is manifested in the possibility of its practical use.

Thus, not every message carries information. In order for the message to carry some information and be useful to the recipient, it must be:

· Written in some language;

· This language must be understood by the recipient;

· The recipient must have a method of extracting information from the message;

· The message should reduce the degree of uncertainty about the object that interests the recipient;

· The message should help him to solve the task;

· The recipient must have a real practical opportunity to use the information received.

2. Types and properties of information

2.1 Types of information

All types of human activities to transform nature and society were accompanied by the receipt of new information. Logical, which adequately reflects the objective laws of nature, society and thinking, is called scientific information. It is divided by areas of receipt or use into the following types: political, technical, biological, chemical, physical, etc .; by appointment - for mass and special. Some information. which is entered on paper is called documentary information. Any production during its operation requires the movement of documents, i.e. there is a workflow. For automated control systems, information in documents constitutes external information support. At the same time, most of the information is stored in the computer memory on magnetic tapes, disks, etc. It is defined as in-machine information support.

As well as scientific information in the field of technology, technical information is used to solve production problems. She accompanies the development of new products, materials, unit designs, technological processes. Scientific and technical information combine the term scientific and technical information: in the field of material production, technological information can circulate, enshrined in the design and technological documentation. In planned calculations, there is economic planning information that contains integral information about the course of production, the values of various economic indicators.

Information from the point of view of its origin and improvement goes the following way: a person observes a certain fact of the surrounding reality, this fact is reflected in the form of a set of data, with subsequent structuring in accordance with a specific subject area, the data turns into knowledge. Thus, upper level information as a result of the reflection of the surrounding reality (the result of thinking) is knowledge. Knowledge arises as a result of theoretical and practical activity. Information in the form of knowledge is highly structured. This allows us to highlight useful information when analyzing the physical, chemical and other processes and phenomena around us. Based on the structuring of information, information model object. As society develops, information as a set of scientific and technical data and knowledge turns into the base of the information service system for scientific and technical activities of society.

Currently, information is used by all sectors of the national economy and, along with energy, minerals is a resource of society. With the development of society, the need arises for the expedient organization of an information resource, i.e. concretization of the available facts, data and knowledge in the areas of science and technology. The recognition of information as a resource and the emergence of the concept of an information resource gave impetus to the development of a new scientific direction - informatics. Informatics as a field of science and technology is associated with the collection and processing of large amounts of information based on modern software and hardware. computing technology and communication techniques. Informatics studies the properties of information resources, develops effective methods and the means of their organization, transformation and application. Based on the achievements of computer science, new methods and algorithms for transforming information are formed, in which a user who is not qualified in computing technology, in a language close to natural, can communicate with a computing environment to solve the required practical problems. At the user level, computer science provides the basis for the creation of modern information systems, such as automated control systems, automated research systems, information and reference systems, intelligent systems, real-time control systems, etc. , development and implementation of personal computers, communication networks, languages of communication between the user and computers. Informatics as a field of science and technology requires its further development. As the main directions of research in the field of informatics, the following can be defined: the development of a new information technology systems design; development of intelligent methods of user access to the computing environment; creation of analysis and synthesis models information processes: improvement of software and hardware for computing and communication technology: transition to intelligent ASOIU (automated control information processing system) based on hybrid expert systems.

2.2 Continuous and discrete forms of information

Information about the state of the object in the IS is generated in the form of messages. The message means everything that is subject to transfer. Regardless of the content, the message is usually presented in the form of electrical, sound, light, mechanical, or other signals. Thus, the message displays some original signals of any kind and depends on the properties of the original signals.

In IS, all initial signals coming from an object can be divided into two large groups: optical signals that reflect stable states of some objects and can be represented, for example, in the form of a certain position of an element, a system, a text in a document, a certain state of an electronic device, and etc., and dynamic signals, which are characterized by a rapid change in time, reflecting, for example, changes electrical parameters systems.

Dynamic and static signals have their own uses. Static signals play an important role in the preparation, registration and storage of information. Dynamic are mainly used to convey information. However, note. that it is not always necessary.

By the nature of the change in signals over time, continuous and discrete signals are distinguished. A continuous signal is displayed by some continuous function and physically represents continuously changing values of oscillations. A discrete signal is characterized by a finite set of values and, depending on the initial state, takes on values associated with a certain state of the system. Based on the physical essence of the process inherent in the control object, it is possible to distinguish some types of continuous and discrete functions that display real signals:

1) a continuous function of a continuous argument. The function has the form f (t), is continuous over the entire segment and can describe a real signal at any time. In this case, no restrictions are imposed on the choice of the moment in time and the value of the function itself;

2) a continuous function of a discrete argument. Typically, such signals occur when quantizing continuous quantities in time. In this case, some fixed times t J are set, counted through the interval Dt. which is usually determined by the spectral properties of the original physical process. The function f (t J) can take any instantaneous values, but it is defined only for discrete time values. This kind of signals and related functions takes place in the formation of initial messages from continuous quantities;

3) a discrete function of a continuous argument f J (t). In this case, the function has a number of finite discrete values, but is defined over the entire time interval t for any instantaneous time value. Discretization of the function itself is associated with the creation of a quantization scale by level, which is characteristic of various sensors, while the quantization step is determined by the required fidelity of the original value;

4) a discrete function of a discrete argument f J (t J). In this case, the function takes one of the possible discrete values, the total number of which is finite, and is determined for the final set of discrete time values. We have discretization both by levels and by points in time.

In order to systematize messages and provide the possibility of transmitting messages through communication channels, coding procedures are used, with the help of coding, a message is presented in a form that allows it to be transmitted through communication channels. A discrete message can be represented as a sequence of numbers or letters, with each number or letter representing one message. With the help of a code, each digit or letter is displayed by a certain set of pulses that make up a code combination. The main requirement for code combinations is the ability to distinguish them on the receiving side under certain effects of interference in communication channels. The total number of code combinations is equal to the number of possible M.

When constructing the code, a number of features associated with the possibilities of transmitting information over a communication channel are taken into account, in addition. the question of the implementation of technical means of converting messages into code, i.e. construction of encoding devices and corresponding means of inverse transformation - decoding devices. The issues of ensuring the required fidelity and speed of information transfer are very important. Currently at times

personal information transmission systems, including information networks a large number of codes have been distributed. Let's consider their generalized classification.

1. According to the base of the number system, codes are divided into binary, ternary, quaternary, etc. Each number system uses a certain set of symbols, and the number of possible symbols for the K-th system is equal to K. Binary codes are constructed using the symbols 0,1; ternary - 0,1,2, while zero means no information transfer over the channel, i.e. lack of impulse, one means a symbol with one value of the signal sign, two - with another. A signal sign is understood as a certain value of current or voltage, which makes it possible to distinguish one symbol from another.

2. By construction, codes are divided into systematic and non-systematic. The peculiarity of constructing systematic codes as separable is that they clearly separate the part of the code that carries the basic information, and the part of the code that serves to detect and correct errors, which is control information. Systematic codes can be constructed according to deterministic algorithms, according to which it is possible to carry out a sufficient simple ways identifying these codes with the detection or correction of errors.

Non-systematic codes are constructed using various combination methods. These are codes for one combination, permutation placement, etc., and when they are detected, analysis is carried out by comparing the received combination with a known set of codes on the receiving side.

3. According to the presence of redundancy, codes are divided into redundant and non-redundant. For non-redundant codes, it is characteristic that at each display of a message with a codeword for the number M of possible code combinations, the main property is the ability to distinguish them. Then the code at the base of the number system K can be constructed as a mapping of the set of decimal numbers from zero to M-1 with the number of bits n in each code combination. For example, for M = 4, the binary redundancy code can be obtained by representing the numbers 0,1,2,3 with a two-element binary code: 00,01,10,11, respectively.

If it is necessary to represent, for example, four messages by a ternary non-redundant code, then the original decimal numbers We write down 0,1,2,3 as 00,01,02,10. In the general case, an m-element non-redundant code in the K-th number system can be represented by M = K m messages. For example, with a two-element non-redundant ternary code, you can have 3 2 = 9 messages.

The transition from a non-redundant code to a redundant code when using systematic codes is carried out by adding some check positions, which can be obtained either by various logical operations performed on the main information positions, or by using deterministic algorithms connecting redundant and non-redundant codes. For example, if you need to go from a non-redundant code to the simplest redundant code, then for the case of a binary code calculated for four messages, the display of which is code combinations 00,01,10,11, it is enough to enter one check position, the value of the symbol on which will be determined as the sum values of the preceding characters modulo two. This logical operation in the binary system is defined by the equalities 0 0 = 0, 1 1 = 0, 0 1 = 1, 1 0 = 1. For the messages under consideration, we get 000, 011, 101, 110. The peculiarity of this code is that it allows you to detect any single error. Thus, the difference between non-redundant and redundant codes is that, due to the lack of redundancy, they are not capable of detecting errors and therefore cannot be used to transmit information over noisy channels. In order to ensure the reliable transmission of information over the communication channel with the given probabilistic-time constraints, it is necessary to introduce redundancy into the code, which can be done by using additional control positions.

4. According to corrective properties, codes are divided into detecting and correcting, or correcting. With the introduction of redundancy into them, detecting codes make it possible to find errors, with the help of correcting codes it is possible to correct errors, while the share of introduced redundancy in comparison with the previous one increases significantly. It should be noted that at present, in the information system, detection codes are more widely used in the transmission of information in combination with additional algorithms for increasing noise immunity through the use of a reverse communication channel.

5. According to the arrangement of code elements in time, serial, parallel and serial-parallel codes are distinguished. In IC, codes with sequential transmission of elements in time are more often used due to the peculiarities of using modulation and demodulation means in communication channels. The difficulty in implementing parallel codes lies in the fact that either signaling features (for example, frequency) that allow the simultaneous transmission of several of their values, or a set of signaling features with the simultaneous transmission of one value of each signal feature, must be used.

As an example, let us consider the possibility of parallel transmission of several messages when using amplitude, polar and signal duration attributes. Then, if it is required to transmit three messages, one of which is transmitted by a pulse of large amplitude, the other by a pulse of negative polarity, and the third by a pulse of long duration, then the transmission of these messages will mean the appearance of a pulse of large amplitude, negative polarity and long duration. Obviously, it is not difficult to consider the possibility of transmitting any set of two messages simultaneously.

It should be noted that parallel codes can be effectively used when transmitting relatively small amounts of information.

2.3 Geometric and combinatorial measures of information

Under the assessment of the amount of information, first of all, the question arises about the type of initial information, and therefore the measurement of information largely depends on the approach to the very concept of information, i.e. from the approach to its content. Currently, there are three main theories, in which the concept of the meaningful nature of information is approached from different positions. Statistical theory evaluates information in terms of a measure of uncertainty. filmed upon receipt of information. As a rule, it does not affect the meaning of the transmitted information, i.e. its semantic content. In statistical theory, the main attention is paid to the probability distribution of individual quanta of information and the construction on its basis of some generalized characteristics that make it possible to estimate the amount of information in a certain quantum.

A completely different approach is observed in semantic theory, which takes into account mainly the value of information, its usefulness and thereby helps to associate the value of information with aging, the value of information and its amount - with the efficiency of management in the system. Finally, the structural theory considers the principle of constructing separate information arrays, while some elementary structural units are taken as a unit of information, and the amount of information is estimated by the simplest counting of quanta in the information array.

The choice of a unit of information is currently a very urgent task. When transmitting continuous messages, their time sampling is often used, therefore a geometric measure is used. allowing to determine the amount of information in separate samples taken over a certain time interval, i.e. the number of transmitted messages in this case is determined by the number of samples. When transmitting discrete information, the simplest measure of information can be the number of code combinations that represent the transmitted messages. The number of combinations is obtained on the basis of the combinatorial method and is determined by the structure of the code construction. its redundancy, i.e. way of building. The disadvantage of this measure is the nonlinear relationship between the number of code combinations and the number of elements in the code. For example, for a non-redundant code, the number of code combinations is M = K n. Usually, a sequence of n symbols is transmitted over a communication channel, so it is advisable to have a characteristic linearly related to the number of elements in the code.

We will assume that the number of information f in a message linearly depends on the length of the code: f = kn. We deduce the formula for the number of information in a message under the following conditions:

1) transmission of discrete messages is carried out;

2) messages are equally probable and mutually independent;

3) the characters issued by the source are mutually independent: 4) the number system is finite.

Then df = kn. If M = K n, then dM = K n lnKdn, dn = dM / K n lnK and df = kdM / M lnK f = k lnM / lnK = k 1 log a M / lnK = k 0 log a M, (2.1 )

where k 0 = k 1 / lnK.

In information theory, the unit of information is the number of information, which is transmitted by two equally probable symbols, or messages. This unit is called a binary information unit.

Taking into account the above, we have for f = 1 and M = 2 1 = k 0 log a. If k 0 = 1, then a = 2, f = I = log 2 M, where I is the amount of information in some averaged message. The formula I = log 2 M is called the Hartley formula, it is valid in accordance with the above constraints 1) - 4).

Let's look at how the code base affects the number of details. Let M messages be transmitted by two codes with bases K 1 and K 2, and numbers of elements n 1 and n 2. We will assume that both codes transmit the same amount of information, i.e. M = K 1 n 1 = K 2 n 2, then k (K 1) n 1 = k (K 2) n 2, n 1 log a K 1 = n 2 log a K 2, k (K 1) / log a K 1 = k (K 2) / log a K 2 From the obtained expression it can be seen that the proportionality coefficient is the greater, the larger the base of the code used.

Let's link the amount of information to the likelihood of individual messages appearing. If messages are equally probable and M different messages appear at the output of some source, then the probability of occurrence of each message is p (x 0 J) = 1 / M, I = - log 2 p (x 0 J). Thus, we obtain a statistical measure of information that relates the probability of occurrence of each message and the amount of information. Since a binary one is taken as the base of the logarithm, this measure is a binary one per message and reflects the amount of information that, on average, is contained in each equally probable message. The resulting expression in the general case determines the information that is contained in some event x 0 J from the set X 0 and is a function of the ensemble of this set. It is always non-negative and increases with decreasing probability p (x 0 J). Physically this information can be considered either as some a priori uncertainty of the event x 0 J from the set X 0, or as information required to resolve this uncertainty. It should be noted that this formula is the simplest: it does not take into account some patterns associated with information that an observer may have before the appearance of a given message, and therefore the concept of mutual information occupies a very important place.

Suppose that a set of messages from the set X 0 appears at the output of a certain source, which we somehow define, taking into account the acting interferences by means of the ensemble Y 0. The appearance of some event from the ensemble Y 0 changes the probability p (x 0 J) from some prior probability p (x 0 J) to the posterior probability p (x 0 J / y 0 J). To assess the quantitative measure of the change in this probability, the logarithm of the ratio of the posterior probability to the prior one can be used, then information about some event from the set X 0 contained in some event from the set Y 0

I (x 0 J, y 0 J) = log 2 (2.2)

Taking into account all the events included in the sets X 0 Y 0, we can finally obtain mutual information as a function of some ensemble X 0 Y 0

independent of the particular outcomes included in these ensembles. Summing over all possible events that make up the ensembles X 0 Y 0, we obtain

I (X 0, Y 0) = е J е i p (x 0 J, y 0 i) * log 2 (2.3)

It is easy to see that in the particular case when the appearance of a given outcome y 0 J uniquely determines that the outcome x 0 J will be some specific element of the set X, we obtain our own information contained in a specific event, i.e. in the message.

information operation informatics discrete

The considered formulas can be used to estimate the amount of information in real transmission conditions. For example, if a set of binary sequences of length m is transmitted with the probability of occurrence of each sequence 1 / M, where M = 2 m, then the own information contained in each message, or the number in one averaged message I (X 0) = log 2 p (x 0 J ) = m binary ones, i.e., using the code without redundancy, we obtain that each element of the binary code carries one binary unit of information. When redundancy is introduced into the code, the number of transmitted messages M is saved, but the length of the code increases add. The amount of information to be transmitted will be equal to the probability of transmitted messages, as before, I = log 2 M, i.e. tons of binary ones. Since n elements in the code are used to transmit m binary ones, where n> m, each code element transmits m / n binary information units, i.e. in one element of the redundancy code less than one binary unit information due to redundancy, which is spent either on detection or on detection and correction of errors.

Thus, the additive measure of information makes it possible to estimate the amount of information transmitted in one code element, taking into account the statistical properties of the information source, and makes it possible in the future to proceed to assessing the information transfer rate and comparing it with throughput communication channel, which in general allows you to give general characteristics the efficiency of using the communication channel, i.e. the effectiveness of matching the source of information with the communication channel.

2.4 Data operations

Various operations can be performed on data, the composition of which is determined by the problem being solved. The operations with data listed below do not depend on who performs them - a technical device, a computer or a person.

1. Data collection - the accumulation of data in order to ensure sufficient completeness for decision-making.

2. Formalization of data - bringing data from different sources to the same form, which makes it possible to make them comparable with each other.

3. Data filtering - filtering out data that is not necessary for making decisions, while reducing the noise level and increasing their reliability and adequacy.

4. Sorting data - sorting data according to a given criterion for ease of use.

5. Data protection - a set of measures aimed at preventing the loss, reproduction and modification of data.

6. Data archiving - organization of data storage in a convenient and easily accessible form, which reduces storage costs and increases the overall reliability of the information process.

7. Transporting data - receiving and transmitting data between remote participants in the information process.

8. Transformation of data - transfer of data from one form to another. Often associated with a carrier change. For example, books can be stored in paper form, but it is possible in electronic form.

Conclusion

In applied informatics, the amount of information is almost always understood in a volumetric sense. No matter how important the measurement of information is, it is impossible to reduce to it all the problems associated with this concept. When analyzing information of social (in a broad sense) origin, such properties as truthfulness, timeliness, value, completeness, etc. can come to the fore. They cannot be evaluated in terms of "uncertainty reduction" (probabilistic approach) or number of symbols (volumetric approach). The appeal to the qualitative side of information has given rise to other approaches to its assessment. With the axiological approach, one strives to proceed from the value, practical significance of information, i.e. qualitative characteristics that are significant in social system... In the semantic approach, information is considered both in terms of form and content. In this case, the information is associated with the thesaurus, i.e. completeness of a systematized set of data on the subject of information. Note that these approaches do not exclude quantitative analysis, but it becomes much more complicated and should be based on modern methods mathematical statistics.

The concept of information cannot be considered only a technical, interdisciplinary, or even a supradisciplinary term. Information is a fundamental philosophical category.

List of used literature

1. Borovikov V.P. [Text] Forecasting in the STATISTICA system in Windows environment... Fundamentals of theory and intensive practice on the computer: Textbook. allowance. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2009. - 384 pages: ill….

2. Booch G. Object-oriented programming with examples of application. - Kiev: Dialectics, M .: I.V.K., 1992.

3. Gorban A.N. Methods of neuroinformatics. KSTU, Krasnoyarsk, 2008 205 p.

4. Goncharuk V.A. Enterprise development. M .: Delo, 2000, 208 p.

5. Gorodetsky V.I. Applied algebra and discrete mathematics. Part 3. Formal systems of logical type. - Ministry of Defense of the USSR, 1987. - 177 pages with silt ...

Applications

Annex 1

Make a formula

Appendix 2

Drawing up a table

Statement of settlement with an agricultural enterprise

Appendix 3

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Content or informational aspect

Here we are faced with the interpretation and connection of concepts such as address, name, content. (Note that in everyday life people tend to establish the relationship “name - address - content.” Sometimes it succeeds (for example, profession - blacksmith; surname - Kuznetsov; address - Moscow city, street: Kuznetsky most), but more often it does not (for example , profession - teacher, surname - Popov, address - the city of Moscow, V. Latsis street ...).

Electronic hardware level

Electronic hardware level (stage) associated with the concept of an address (position number) of data or devices (elements) of a computer. Machine commands operate in terms of RAM addresses, all external computer devices have machine numbers (addresses). At the initial stage of the development of programming systems, there was such a concept as programming in machine addresses (or machine codes), while both the computation processes and the transfer of information between the RAM and external memory are controlled by referring to the corresponding absolute memory addresses.

In this case, the program is simply a collection of machine words and is specified by its start and end addresses in memory. For example, a programmer had to describe the procedure for retrieving data from a magnetic tape with approximately the following commands: "on tape drive number 4, rewind the tape, skipping 11 blocks, starting from this point write 3 blocks of information from the magnetic tape into RAM, starting from address 234 561" etc. Such manipulations correspond to programming in machine addresses.

Program stage

Program step or level leads to the concept of a given name, device, program, and so on. Programming languages (programming systems) use symbolic notation (names, identifiers) for data (numbers, strings, structures) and program elements (blocks, functions, procedures). Operating systems (OS) operate on the names of files, volumes, devices, realizing data management, relieve the user of working with addresses, replacing it with working with data names. A typical operating system command (like DOS) does not contain any machine addresses:

litter c: gamescomic.doc prn.

Information stage

Information stage, or level, leads to the definition and use of content (values) given. Users of information systems do not care about the machine address of information storage or the name of the file, they are interested in the content. The links between address and content are implemented at the level application programs, called DBMS (database management systems) and AIPS (automated information retrieval systems).

In turn, the establishment of such links can be carried out as programmatically(calculating the address by content, or randomization, hashing) and informational, by using additional files, index tables (indexes, inverse lists, etc. - indexing). The first type was used in early DBMS and was not widely used at that time. A significant reduction in the cost of information storage devices has led to the fact that recently the second type of links "content-address" is mainly used. Attempts to implement these connections in hardware (associative memory, Data Base Machine, etc.) have not yet received widespread commercial distribution. At the same time, some encouraging results have been achieved towards combining these two approaches - indexing and randomization.

It is also significant that in this period programming languages of information systems appeared (in which the main attention is paid to the description of data of a complex structure, and not to the description of calculations and algorithms).